168
Usually these accounts describe an
ignis
fatuus that is visible when it is dark. They
explain the surveyor’s appearance as an
ignis
fatuus to be a punishment for incorrect land
measurement:
One woman said:
– I have never seen an
ignis fatuus, I would
like to see one.
An
ignis fatuus came by the window at
midnight.
– Well, get up! You
wanted to see me, you’ll
see now.
The woman, scared, looks: a human body – a
skeleton and a candle is burning inside it in
the place where a heart should be. The
woman caught a fright and died.
It is said that if surveyors measure land
wrong, then after their deaths they have to
perform penance by being the
ignes fatui.
(LTt 4 451.)
According to other explanations
ignes fatui are
souls of surveyors that did not measure land
according to law, for example:
People used to say that surveyors who
measured land wrong, not according to the
law, those souls used to walk after the death...
(LTR 3578/207/.)
Or they might say that these were the souls of
unjust surveyors, specialists who were bribed:
Surveyors who measured land wrong, were
bribed, these are
ignes fatui. (LTR
4638/285/.)
That is why the appearance of an
ignis fatuus
is sometimes treated as
an attempt by a soul to
correct his measuring mistakes:
Ignes fatui are the souls of dead surveyors. At
night they measure incorrect borders anew.
(LTR 1167/547
a
/.)
Wandering lights are the souls of those
surveyors who, when they were alive,
measured lands wrong; therefore they now
measure them anew. (LTR 2633/155/.)
Even after death, the surveyor retains the
equipment of his profession:
When a surveyor measures land wrong, he
has to measure it anew after his death. He
measures with all his instruments and goes
with a candle in hand. (LTR 1418/873
a
/.)
The presence of
ignes fatui is tied to weather
conditions:
People used to say that
ignes fatui appeared
because surveyors measured land wrong:
these candles are a punishment. When the
weather grows cold, the candles disappear
because the surveyors don’t measure any
more. (LTR 1196/221/.)
In some cases, the souls of surveyors may
wander as if presenting a message about unjust
land measurement:
I said: ‘Mother,
ignes fatui are wandering
here in pastures.’ Mother said: ‘They may be
surveyors.’ It was true, surveyors came a few
years later. A dead surveyor wanders until
living surveyors come. (LTR 3561/12/.)
The profession of surveyor was characterized
by the reciprocal distrust of the peasant and of
surveyor. This distrust was not without reason –
not all surveyors were fair and just. Perhaps a
lack of faith in the surveyor’s integrity resulted
in conditions that produced the image of a
dishonest surveyor’s soul forced to wander the
world after his death. The establishment and
circulation of this image may reflect social
concerns and tensions surrounding surveyors
and their work.
Some locations where surveyors worked
correspond to places where
ignes fatui might
be seen, but that in itself does not account for
precisely why unjust surveyors have to wander
as
ignes fatui after death rather than a wider
range of souls that have committed injustices.
Boundaries and Souls
Perhaps this association has a deeper cultural
basis, particularly in light of beliefs regarding
borders (boundaries) of land and their relation
to the world of souls. The Lithuanian term
ežia
refers to a strip of land that forms a border or
boundary between peasant plots. These were
places where, according to folk belief, souls
habitually resided. This is clearly reflected in
texts of belief legend texts about people who
want to sleep on such a boundary at night and
are chased away by someone who warns them
(or even strikes them). Usually this happens to
people who herd at night:
You should never lie on the boundary
between two fields. Once several boys rode
off to herd horses at night. They hobbled the
horses, left one boy to watch over the animals
169
and prepared to sleep. They all lied down near
the boundary that separated the fields, but one
boy lied down across the boundary and fell
asleep. In his sleep he heard somebody
shouting:
– Get up and go away!
He woke up, looked around but seeing
nobody and thinking that a
watchman called,
he fell asleep again. [This happened three
times.] When he fell asleep again, somebody
hit him on his back and he retreated from the
path of souls. There was a small devil. He
walks along the borders and if he finds
someone then he drives him away. (LTR
452/112/.)
There are many beliefs about paths of souls
that usually coincide with land boundaries,
places where no one can enter or do certain
things. For instance, people could not build
their houses on boundaries because of
haunting:
A man built a house on a hill by a swamp.
Every night was frightful: somebody ran,
rumbled with horses around the house. A
brave man asked: ‘Will you stop running
around?’ Somebody said: ‘Leave this place.’
They had to remove the house. A devils’ path
was there. (LTR 5278/64/.)
Such soul paths developed over a long period
with human activities, with the changes in the
landscape, and thus, the abrupt alteration of
borders can disturb the souls. People usually
knew about these places and tried to avoid
disturbing the souls’ peace. The paths of souls
naturally develop between neighbouring
cemeteries. It was also believed that souls
communicate with one another:
In Panevėžys volost, near Kabeliai, a strip of
land, where nothing grows, runs along
Priedžiai field from the chapel to Šlikai
cemetery. Old people called this place a path
of souls. People used to say that souls of the
chapel visited souls in the cemetery. (LTR
1204/68/.)
Therefore souls exist in places that in many
cases coincide with the boundaries of the land.
This seems to be related to archaic burial
customs. According to ethnographic data from
the 16
th
century, Lithuanians from rural areas
did not have parochial cemeteries and the dead
were buried on the land edges of particular
villages (Balsys 2006: 237).
The relationship between the souls of the
dead and boundary areas has the consequence
that changes in land borders affects the places
where souls existed and the paths where they
walked.
Changing
borders
may
have,
according to folk beliefs, belonged to the
sphere of ‘higher’ powers.
For instance, it was
believed that “if when ploughing one breaks a
boundary, he will be struck by thunder” (BsTB
11: 429, Nr. 3). Surveyor’s work not only
consisted of the measurement of the lands of
the living but also involved intervening in the
sphere of souls. As this aspect of their duties
implicitly engaged the supernatural sphere, it
was therefore unsurprising that supernatural
consequences could follow. From this emic
perspective, becoming trapped in a liminal
state of wandering between worlds may have
seemed a natural consequence of an action that
created a serious or permenant disruption to
land boundaries. Perhaps that is why the
surveyor is so severely punished.
Conclusion
In Lithuanian folklore, the
ignes fatui appear as
souls of the individuals who have unresolved
affairs in the worldly sphere, such as the souls
of unbaptized children and the souls of people
whose lives met a premature end. Perhaps
surprisingly, the souls of surveyors also fall
into this category, doomed to wander until the
mistakes they made before death are corrected.
The identification of
ignes fatui as
surveyors appears to be a development in the
tradition that is historically rooted in social
concerns and tensions linked to the land
reforms of the independent Lithuanian state in
the first half of the 20th century. Although one
might speculate that the identification of
ignes
fatui with surveyors could have emerged from
empirical observations of distant surveyors
moving about with lanterns, this does not
account for why a broader range of
occupations (e.g. watchmen) have not been
correspondingly linked to the tradition. The
present article proposes that the traditional
identification of border areas with the dead and
supernatural beings may have potentially been
a crucial factor in this innovation. If this view
is correct, then the punishment of a surveyor’s
soul – to wander as an
ignis fatuus for
mismeasuring land – is linked to the impact of