Aksum An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity Stuart Munro-Hay

of aromatics, `both the local kinds and those from Aethiopia; to get the latter they sail 
across the straits in leathern boats' (Page 1930: 349). Human life was also part of the 
trading wealth of the state, and slaves, noted by both Pliny and Kosmas, may have 
figured prominently among the exports (Connah 1987: 72, 89).  
Salt, which was of sufficient importance to figure in sixth-century internal trade (Kosmas, 
ed. Wolska-Conus 1968), later became one of Ethiopia's currency goods; most of it 
probably came from the low- lying Danakil region east of the highlands. In later times it 
was transported in blocks called amole (or gayla in Tigrinya). The products of local 
industries or of agriculture and stock-raising, do not seem to have figured among the 
exported goods, though in later times hides and leather became an important export. The 
Muslim hadith mention that leather goods from Mecca were much in demand in Ethiopia 
(Guillaume 1955: 150-51). The local manufactured goods would most likely have been 
solely for the internal markets, and probably not of the necessary quality to be taken on 
long trade voyages. The contrary was true of the products of the Roman empire and 
India, which were much desired and appreciated by the élite of Aksum, if we can 
interpret from the lists of imports, and the finds in tombs and domestic buildings. Iron, 
though long known in Ethiopia and neighbouring Sudan, was still an important import, 
both as raw material and in the form of tools and weapons. Articles specially made to 
order in precious metals, a va ried selection of glass vessels, various fabrics and made- up 
garments, and some wines, oils, and spices are mentioned as imports by the Periplus, 
Kosmas, and others. Even some coin, in the form of either brass pieces or Roman coined 
money, was imported for trading purposes, apparently long before the decision was taken 
to facilitate trading exchanges by the issue of the local coinage.  
A good deal of the imported material mentioned in the sources has turned up at Aksumite 
sites, particularly in such tomb deposits as that found in the Tomb of the Brick Arches at 
Aksum itself. Here was found glass in quantity, of high quality (more was found in a 
tomb in the Gudit Stelae Field, including two sets of goblets and beakers), iron, bronze, 
gold, silver, bone and ivory, ceramics, wood and leather. A good deal of this was 
probably of local manufacture, but some of the metalwork and the glass was certainly 
imported. From other parts of Aksum and from other Aksumite sites came amphorae in 
which wine or oils were imported, some of the luxury glass vessels from the Roman 
world, foreign glazed wares, perhaps from the region of the Persian Gulf, and occasional 
gold Roman or Indian coins. The presence of such items is testimony to the success of the 
Aksumites in developing the potential of their trade from both the interior and overseas 
trans-shipments into a rich source of revenue. Agriculture, however, probably remained 
the dominant form of economic activity almost everywhere in the country, except in a 
few special circumstances, and more or less uniform farming would have reduced the 
need for much internal traffic in bulky agricultural products (even if there had been the 
roads and transport facilities to carry them on any but the main routes). Cattle, of course, 
could be driven for sale as required, as illustrated by the Sasu gold trade where cattle on 
the hoof formed part of the trade-goods (Kosmas, ed. Wolska-Conus 1968). Certain 
locally manufactured goods, like pottery, may have been partly made by specialists in 
certain places where there was a large demand, but in country areas were perhaps not the 
work of such specialists. Most towns were probably rather regional markets than trade 

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centres, importing local agricultural produce for their maintenance and distributing some 
craft products, and acting as local administrative or religious centres. But a few may have 
been financed to some extent by trade, such as Koloe, the ivory market, and of course 
Adulis itself. Apart from limited inter-regional movement of goods, the foreign trade, 
though rich, seems to have been chiefly in luxuries for the few, and it is unlikely that the 
metalwork, glass, cloth and so on brought to Adulis found a mass- market in Aksumite 
Ethiopia, any more than the ivory and so forth from Africa met with a very wide 
distribution outside.  
No information is available about the system of taxation employed by the Aksumite 
rulers, but doubtless a good deal of the state's income depended on the categories noted 
above; population, land and its yield, livestock and trade. Land and population would 
have formed two basic and permanent taxable factors, relatively easy to administer, and 
later land-charters show that there was a well-kept record of land ownership (Huntingford 
1965) which may well date back to Aksumite times. Foreign trade passed through a 
customs-post at Gabaza near Adulis, and probably on certain routes, or in the markets 
themselves, tolls were levied on the movement of trade or manufactured goods. It seems 
likely that relatively few taxes were paid in money, though such taxes would have 
stimulated money use and enhanced its profitability for the state. Taxes in kind were 
probably the norm save in the larger towns or on particularly important trade goods, and 
very possibly there were state granaries or supply depots where cereals, livestock and 
other foodstuffs collected as tax were held. From such repositories may have come the 
materials for the food supplies issued during the forcible transportation of Beja tribes 
described by Ezana's inscriptions (
Ch. 11: 5
), and doubtless there would have been state 
help available to the population in times of shortage. Possibly also there may have been 
dues such as unpaid labour contributions, and supplies for royal progresses, officials 
travelling on state business, and soldiers in time of war.  
5. Local Industries 
 
The economy of Aksum in the days of its prosperity was flourishing enough to support a 
selection of specialised local industries. Perhaps the most impressive was the pottery 
(Anfray 1966; Wilding in Munro-Hay 1989), large numbers of both luxury and utilitarian 
wares being produced in very varied, sometimes elegant shapes. Pottery could be finished 
in a number of ways; elaborately decorated with incised or stamped patterns, slipped, 
painted, or burnished. There may have been a local glass industry (see also below), and 
the discovery of faience vessels in typical Aksumite shapes leads to the impression that it 
too was locally made (Chit tick 1974).  
Skins and hides were presumably used for clothing and bedding in the colder months. 
Woven fabrics may have been produced, but there is no actual evidence except for the 
loom- weights excavated (Wilding in Munro-Hay 1989), and Kosmas' (Wolska-Conus 
1968) allusion to Aksumites wearing white cloth kilts or loin-cloths. The draperies, 
sometimes apparently fringed, shown covering the kings' shoulders on the coins were 

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