Authoring a PhD

part of the existing literature’s questions or concerns, and then
tailor or modify that topic so as to shape it so that it can be fea-
sibly answered. The way that the question is shaped should be
reasonably distinctive, coming at a subject from a personally
chosen angle. If you have such a personalized (even mildly
idiosyncratic) perspective then it is less likely to be adopted 
by other researchers during the course of your studies.
It is best to try and frame your thesis around an intellectual
problem or a paradox, not around a gap. It needs to focus on 
a set of phenomena that ask for explanation, which you can
express as a non-obvious puzzle and for which you can formulate
an interesting and effective answer. The philosopher Robert
Nozick recently asked, ‘What is an intellectual problem?’ and
concluded that it had five components.
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The first is a goal or
objective which can tell us how to judge outcomes, how to see
that an improvement has been achieved. The second is an initial
state, the starting situation and the resources available to be used,
in this case usually the existing literature. A set of operations that
can be used to change the initial state and resources forms the
third component of an intellectual problem, perhaps new data
and a toolkit of research methods. Constraints are the fourth ele-
ment, designating certain kinds of operations as inadmissible.
The final element is an outcome. A problem has been solved or
ameliorated somewhat if a sequence of admissible operations has
been carried out so as to change the initial state into an outcome
that meets the goal without breaching the constraints in doing
so. In French doctoral education this broad approach to defining
a topic is often characterized as a search for ‘une problématique’.
The synonymous English word ‘a problematic’ is too ambiguous
with the adjectival ‘problematic’ (meaning ‘difficult’) to play an
equivalent role. However, if you think of ‘problematizing’ your
thesis question – setting the answer you hope to give within 
a framework which will show its intellectual significance – then
you will get near to what the French term means.
E N V I S I O N I N G T H E T H E S I S A S A W H O L E
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Father Brown laid down his cigar and said 
carefully, ‘It isn’t that they can’t see the solution.
It is that they can’t see the problem.’
G. K. Chesterton
5
Most problems people face cannot be specified with
such exactness. And often people do not simply
face
given problems; their task is to 
make
a problem,
to
find
one in the inchoate situation they face.
Robert Nozick
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Many PhD students from countries or disciplines with more
empiricist approaches, or placing more emphasis on intellectual
or social consensus, find the idea of problematizing their thesis
topic difficult and odd. They often regard their chosen topic 
as obviously worthy of study or intrinsically interesting and
important in common-sense terms alone. They see no puzzle or
enigma in front of them, merely an empirical landscape only