Beacon dictionary of theology

For Further Reading: Barkman, Man in Conflict; Mavis, The Psychology of Christian Experience.

J. Kenneth Grider

APOCALYPTIC, APOCALYPSE. The title apocalyptic is applied to a type of largely Jewish literature dating for the most part between 170 b.c.

and a.d. 135. The period began with the Macca-bean rebellion and climaxed in the Bar Kokhba revolt at the end. It was an era of upheaval and recurring crises, a situation reflected in one after another of the apocalyptic books. The apocalyptic message was directed to a people in trouble, a people who could not otherwise understand the working of God in the midst of persecution and overwhelming evil. In such circumstances the apocalyptists attempted to rationalize and justify the ways of God with man and thereby to instill courage and confidence in God's people.

The term apocalyptic is derived from the Greek noun apokalupsis, which means a "disclosure" or "revelation." The NT Book of Revelation generally fits the apocalyptic literary style and is the first known book to be designated as an apokalupsis (Rev. 1:1). Another common title for the book therefore is The Apocalypse.

The nearest OT parent of apocalyptic was the Book of Daniel, which furnished many of the themes and a good deal of the symbolism for the later literature. But the historical roots of apocalyptic may be traced back to other OT books, particularly to Isaiah 56—66, several passages in Ezekiel, and to Zechariah 9—-14.

The most obviously apocalyptic books from the period 170 b.c. to a.d. 135 are 1 Enoch, 4 Ezra, and 2 Baruch. The latter two books are of special interest because they were probably written during the same generation as Revelation, and they reflect numerous parallels with this last book of the NT. But in addition to these three books, several other writings which originated at this time contain apocalyptic passages and elements. These include jubilees, Sibylline Oracles (especially Books 3, 4, 5), the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (especially the Testament of Levi), Psalms of Solomon (especially Psalms 17-18), the Assumption of Moses, the Apocalypse of Moses (especially chap. 29), the Apocalypse of Abraham (especially chaps. 9—32) the Testament of Abraham, and 2 Enoch.

The apocalyptic books were chiefly concerned to reveal what had previously been hidden, particularly secrets about the heavenly world and the time of the end of the present world. These secrets were allegedly given in ancient times to OT worthies, but their content was sealed until the time of the end (cf. Dan. 12:9), to be disclosed to the last generation of the faithful.

Throughout apocalyptic, eschatology determines everything that is said. The apocalyptist possessed a strong consciousness of living at the end of the old age, just prior to the dawn of the new age. He expected the OT eschatological


APOCRYPHA—APOLLINARIANISM

43

events to occur imminently. He was pessimistic about any good coming from the present age, which he regarded as totally dominated by Satan and evil powers and abandoned by God. His hope was in the imminent kingdom of God which would break in violently from beyond history.

See revelation (book of), hermeneutics, eschatology, prophet (prophecy).

For Further Reading: Hanson, The Dawn of Apoca-
lyptic; Morris, Apocalyptic; Rowley, The Relevance of
Apocalyptic; Russell, The Method and Message of Jewish
Apocalyptic. Fred D. Layman

APOCRYPHA. The term Apocrypha (from apok-ryphos, "hidden") designates a collection of documents which at times has been included with the Christian Scriptures. These writings originated in a time of religious and political ferment in the life of Judaism, mainly from the two centuries preceding and the century following the birth of Christ. They constitute only a small portion of the surviving literary production from that period. To this time also belong the Pseudepigrapha and the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The books of the Apocrypha are normally listed as:

1. 
   Esdras
   
2. 
   Esdras Tobit Judith
   

The Additions to Esther The Wisdom of Solomon Ecclesiasticus, or the Wisdom of Jesus

the Son of Sirach Baruch

The Letter of Jeremiah Additions to the Book of Daniel

1. 
   The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Young Men
   
2. 
   Susanna
   

c. Bel and the Dragon
The Prayer of Manasseh

1. 
   Maccabees
   
2. 
   Maccabees
   

These writings were preserved because of the importance inscribed to them by various segments of the Jewish and Christian communities. Although never a part of the Hebrew canon, they were included in the Greek OT or Septuagint which, along with the NT, became the Bible of the Early Church. When the Latin Bible or Vulgate appeared, the Apocrypha was included. As a result these writings functioned as a part of the Church's Scripture until the Protestant Reformation.

With the Reformation there was a gradual change. Although often printing the Apocrypha as part of its Bible, Protestantism did not consider it as authoritative as the Hebrew canon and the NT writings. The Roman Catholic church, in reaction to the Reformers, soon declared it to be canonical and of equal value for doctrine with the OT and NT. The Apocrypha remains an integral part of Catholic versions of the Bible. Martin Luther included the Apocrypha in his first complete Bible translation in 1634 with the heading, "Apocrypha, that is books which are not held to be equal to Holy Scripture and yet are profitable and good to read." Subsequent to the Reformation these books were sometimes excluded but more often included in the printed editions of the Bible. They were not, however, ever accorded the status of canonical Scripture. The first edition of the King James Bible of 1611 printed the Apocrypha as a separate work and inserted it between the Testaments.

The books of the Apocrypha are of lasting value for our knowledge of the historical and religious situations from which they arose. They are a significant record of men in conflict over political, moral, and spiritual values. As such their message transcends their own times.

See antilegomena, canon, biblical authority, inspiration of the bible.

For Further Reading: Metzger, ed., The Oxford Annotated Apocrypha, Revised Standard Version; Charles, ed., The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha in English, with Introductions and Critical and Explanatory Notes to the Several Books, vol. 1; Metzger, An Introduction to the Apocrypha; Eissfeldt, The Old Testament: An Introduction, 574-602; Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times, with an Introduction to the Apocrypha, 233-524.

Frank G. Carver

APOLLINARIANISM. Apollinarius, bishop of La-odicea (d. 390), was the first theologian known to grapple with the question of how the divine and human natures could unite in Christ. A convinced believer in realistic redemption, he insisted that the union and fusion of the two natures was absolutely essential to salvation. While accepting with Athanasius the full deity of Christ, he considered the Arians were right in objecting to the current doctrine that it predicated of Christ two personalities, saying: "If perfect God were joined to perfect man, there would be two—one, Son of God by nature, one by adoption."

Applying the logic that two perfect entities cannot become one, he insisted that if Christ possessed a rational human soul He could not be God incarnate but only a God-inspired man. Furthermore, how can we ascribe freedom of will to the Man Jesus without making Him mutable and

44

APOLOGETICS—APOSTASY

liable to sin? For these reasons he felt obliged to deny the completeness of Christ's humanity.

At first he taught that the Logos had taken merely a human body. Later, however, he developed a view, based on a trichotomous psychology, that Christ's body (soma) and soul (psyche) were human, but that the place of the human spirit (pneuma) was assumed by the Logos. Thus the mutable human spirit in Christ was replaced by the immutable Divine Word. The Logos and abridged human nature were fused in "a single nature," "a single essence." Instead of two natures, which imply two self-determining subjects, there is but one incarnate nature of God the Word.

Mackintosh levels three criticisms at this view. (1) Christ's humanity is a partial and mutilated personality. The part left out is that which alone is capable of God, and the remaining humanity is simply that of the beasts. (2) Since sin is primarily an affair of human willfulness, Christ failed to take possession of the focal point of human life and need and therefore left our situation unredeemed. "That which is unassumed is unhealed" (Gregory Nazianzen). (3) Employing physical and metaphysical rather than ethical categories, Apollinarius defined God and man as absolute contraries which render the thean-thropic union impossible. "The sublime thought that Christ is perfect in His humanity just because of the personal indwelling of God, and thereby becomes the Head of a new redeemed race, has completely fallen out of sight."

Apollinarianism was condemned by the Second Ecumenical Council, held in Constantinople, in 381.

See christ, christology, hypostatic union, adoptionism.

For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 2:158-59; McGiffert, A History of Christian Thought, 1:277-82; Berkouwer, The Person of Christ, 64-66; Mackintosh, The Person of Jesus Christ, 196-201. WILLIAM M. GREATHOUSE

APOLOGETICS. Apologetics (Gr. apologetikos) is the science which presents the proofs and fundamentals of things or systems. The root meaning of the verb fo apologize (Gr. apologeisthai) is "to answer," "to account for," "to defend," or "to justify." An apology (Gr. apologia) is a verbal or written discourse in defense or praise of persons or things. Christian apologetics refers properly not to a science, but to the art of defending or explaining the Christian faith to the nonbeliever. Since through the centuries nonbelievers have been of many different sorts, Christian apologetics has assumed a diversity of postures and has used a diversity of methods. In this sense the Judeo-Christian tradition has a rich apologetic history that goes back to its very beginning.

The OT, for instance, is not merely a recital of past events, but rather a theologically interpreted account of Yahweh's activity in history in relation to His chosen people Israel. We see, therefore, in the broadest sense of the term, an "accounting for" God's actions, or an apologetic concern.

Likewise, the very structure of the NT may be considered to be apologetic in the sense that the thinking and the witnessing of the holy writers are directed to religious persuasion, i.e., to give a convincing account of God's activity in Christ. The best examples of this are the Gospel of Mark, and Peter's and Paul's speeches in the Book of Acts.

The most outstanding apologies in favor of Christianity, however, come from the second and third centuries, when some of the earliest Christian apologists (Justin Martyr, Origen, Tertullian) defended the Christian faith from the threats of heresies and the hostility from the Roman Empire during those critical centuries when Christianity was struggling for survival.

During the Reformation, apologetics was represented by the great Reformers (Luther, Calvin, Zwingli), who defended among other things the principle of sola Scriptura, in opposition to the traditional position of the Roman Catholic church which endorsed both Scripture and tradition as sources of authority. During the post-Reformation period apologetics was directed to the defense of the supernatural and the historical reliability of Scripture against those who denied the supernatural and held that both the Bible and tradition were unreliable sources of historical truth. Towards the end of the 19th century, Christian apologetics centered about the historical reliability of the Gospels, especially their testimony to the resurrection and divinity of Christ. Modern apologetics is directed toward the issue of the relevance of the gospel to the "here and now" temporal existence of man. The best-known apologist in the 20th century was C. S. Lewis, the Oxford don.

See theistic proofs, theological language, comparative religion, credentials of scripture.

For Further Reading: Rogers, The Case for Christianity:
An Outline of Popular Apologetics; Sweet, The Verification
of Christianity: Introductory Studies in Christian Apolo-
getics. Ismael E. Amaya

APOSTASY. The Greek word apostasia appears twice in the NT (Acts 21:21; 2 Thess. 2:3). In English versions it is usually translated "falling


APOSTLE

45

away," a term descriptive of what will happen when the man of sin, or the Antichrist, is revealed. It expresses the idea of abandonment of the faith, an unbelief which jettisons hope and is in fact a capitulation to the false beliefs of heretics.

But apostasy is not just a thing of the future. There is an obvious awareness of this danger in the early literature of the Jews. Note the warnings and prohibitions in the laws of Moses (Exod. 20:3-23; Deut. 6:14; 11:16). When the 12 tribes took possession of the land in the days of Joshua, caution was exercised with regard to the danger of apostasy (Josh. 22:21-29). Jude reviews the period of Israel's history following the Red Sea deliverance and states that apostasy did in fact take place (Jude 5-7). Furthermore, it is stated that not only are men capable of apostasy but also angels.

In classical Greek the term signifies a defection or revolt from a military commander. Following in its wake came shame, disgrace, infamy, and reproach or censure. The victim was thus labelled a deserter.

When the history of the Early Church is examined, it is apparent that in many instances the persecutions produced a harvest of apostasy. Against this backdrop the martyrdoms stand in marked contrast. The developing heresies also produced their share of turncoats. Paul warns the Thessalonians with regard to this possibility (2 Thess. 2:2-3).

Apostasy needs to be differentiated from what might be described as falling into error. Ignorance may result in error (Acts 19:1-6), or a Christian may suddenly discover that he has been ensnared by Satan (2 Tim. 2:25-26). Merrill F. Unger defines apostasy "as the act of a professed Christian, who knowingly and deliberately rejects revealed truth regarding the deity of Christ ([1] John 4:1-3) and redemption through his atoning sacrifice (Phil. 3:18; II Pet. 2:1)." Heb. 6:4-6 is a sobering delineation of apostasy.

The ISBE lists the following causes and examples of apostasy: "Causes of: persecution (Mt. 24:9-10); false teachers (Mt. 24:11); temptation (Lk. 8:13); worldliness (2 Tim. 4:4); defective knowledge of Christ (1 Jn. 2:19); moral lapse (Heb. 6:4-6); forsaking worship and spiritiual living (10:25-31); unbelief (3:12). Biblical examples: Saul (1 Sam. 15:11); Amaziah (2 Ch. 25:14-27); many disciples (Jn. 6:66); Hymenaeus and Alexander (1 Tim. 1:19-20); Demas (2 Tim. 4:10). For further illustration see Deut. 13:13; Zeph. 1:4-6; Gal. 5:4; 2 Pet. 2:20-21" (1:202).

See backsliding, perseverance, eternal security.

For Further Reading: Kittel, 1:512-13; ISBE, 1:202; Unger's Bible Dictionary, 72. ROBERT A. MATTKE

APOSTLE. This word is a transliteration of the Greek apostolos, which means "sent one." The Greek root is stel which means literally "to set in order" or "to equip." In classical Greek usage stel was a noun denoting "naval expedition" or "bill of lading." The eventual controlling idea, expressed in apostolos, was that of equipping or commissioning. Thus, the noun came to mean "delegate," "ambassador," "messenger," or "missionary." The NT employs apostle in this sense.

The 12 disciples, who were chosen by Christ and who accompanied Him throughout His ministry, became known as apostles. Generally, to speak of "the apostles" is to refer to this particular group of men. The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts follow this practice, with the exception of a reference to Paul and Barnabas as apostles (Acts 14:14). In the rest of the NT the title is used of a larger group of Christian leaders. In Romans, Paul claims this title for himself (1:1) and for Andronicus and Junias (16:7). He also speaks of James, the Lord's brother, as an apostle (Gal. 1:19; cf. Epaphroditus in the Greek text of Phil. 2:25). The author of Hebrews uses the title for Christ (3:1). The general impression is that the Church, following the time of Paul, restricted the use of this word to the Twelve and Paul.

Paul's statement that the Church is "built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets" (Eph. 2:20; 3:5) implies that the apostles were a group of persons with special roles in the founding and administering of the Church in its primitive period. This thesis finds support in the qualifications set down by the pre-Pentecostal community of followers for the selection of a replacement for Judas (Acts 1:15-26). The person must have been with Jesus throughout His ministry and must have witnessed His resurrection. Matthias therefore took on the "apostleship from which Judas turned aside" (v. 25, nasb, rsv).

Moreover, the apostles went on special evangelistic missions to other geographical areas (Acts 8:14-25; 9:32; 10:1-48; Gal. 2:11-14). It appears that the essential activity of the apostles was to proclaim the Word (Acts 1:7-8; 20:24; Rom. 11:13; 2 Cor. 6:3 ff). The task of these persons was a unique, first-century task, which included not only a firsthand witness to Christ but also guidance to the growing Church in matters of theology and the development of leadership.

The apostolate was a creation of the risen Lord. Its function was to proclaim the Good


46

APOSTLES' CREED—APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS AND CANONS

News under the anointing of the Spirit. A strong missionary concern characterized its ministry.

See apostolic succession, clergy.

For Further Reading: Munck, "Paul, the Apostles, and the Twelve," Studia Theologia 3 (1949); Rengstorf, "Apostello," Kittel, vol. 1; Schmithals, The Office of the Apostle in the Early Church. willard H. taylor

APOSTLES' CREED. This is a direct descendant of the Rituale Romanum, the "Old Roman Creed" current among Christians at Rome from about a.d. 150. The original form of words was used chiefly as a Trinitarian baptismal confession of faith (cf. Matt. 28:19). It was apparently framed in opposition to Marcion for the purpose of guarding candidates for church membership against his errors. Phrases were added through the centuries, but in substance the present creed is virtually identical with the Rituale Romanum.

In protecting the faith from the Marcionite heresy, the Church appealed to the apostolic witness. The Trinitarian framework is filled in with key historical and theological affirmations which reveal the creed's biblical roots. Both in content and phraseology the creed is strikingly similar to that of the NT witness to the faith of the earliest Church. Christianity began with certain indubitable historical events which occurred "under Pontius Pilate." But the history enshrined is interpreted history, and the symbol is a confession of faith in Jesus Christ, who He was and what God was doing "for us men and our salvation" through Him. The creed is the faith of the Church and not of the individual as such. Credo ("I believe") is the believer's personal signature to the apostolic witness.

Rooted as it is in the biblical revelation and formulated originally as the "Old Roman Creed," the Textus Receptus dates from the eighth century. Recognized later by the churches of the Reformation, the Apostles' Creed became the fundamental confession of the common Christian faith. The following analysis is intended to show more definitely the various ages when the present clauses were added and to suggest in general the meaning which has attached to the various statements.

"I believe in God the Father Almighty" is ancient. "Almighty" is more accurately "all-controlling."

"Creator of heaven and earth" was not in the Rituale Romanum but is found from the earliest times in the Eastern creeds. It appeared first in the Western creed about a.d. 375.

"And in Jesus Christ his Son our Lord" is ancient. "Jesus" means "Savior" and is the name of the Man, while "Christ" means "anointed" and is representative of God. "Our Lord" designates Him as the Object of our faith and obedience.

"Who was [conceived] of the Holy Spirit, born of the virgin Mary, [suffered] under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, [dead], and buried" is ancient.

"Descended into hell [infernos]" is from the late fourth century but without any controversial animus. It is generally understood to mean that our Lord descended into the realm of the dead, preached to them, and led away to Paradise those who would follow Him. "Hell" here certainly does not signify gehenna but hades, the place of departed spirits (see Acts 2:27).

"The third day He arose again from the dead, ascended to heaven, where he sits at the right hand of [God] the Father [Almighty]" is ancient. It signifies that the glorified Jesus now lives with God in glory.

"[From thence] He shall come again to judge the living and the dead" is ancient.

"I believe in the Holy [Catholic] Church." Cath-olicam (late fourth or fifth century) at first meant universal as opposed to local, but from the third century the universal Church as opposed to the schismatic or heretical.

"The communion of saints" is contemporary with catholicam and signifies the unity of the life of all the Church, living and dead.

"The forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the flesh" is ancient. "The body will be raised— the same body by personal continuity, but in a very different condition—a spiritual body" (Wiley).

"And in the life everlasting" is late fourth century.

See creed (creeds), marcionism, orthodoxy.

For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 1:40-42; McGiffert, A History of Christian Thought, 1:156-65; Barr, From the Apostles' Faith to the Apostles' Creed; Barclay, The Apostles' Creed for Everyman.

William M. Greathouse