1554
I. Siokou-Frangou et al.: Mediterranean plankton
production (Magazz`u and Decembrini, 1995). However the
values widely vary depending on the locations, depths, sea-
sons as well as on the method used and size fractions con-
sidered (Table 2). Values up to 80% of total biomass were
reported for waters off Israeli coast (Berman et al., 1984), in
the EMS, and in the Straits of Sicily during summer (Brunet
et al., 2006).
With the exception of the highly dynamic
mesoscale structures, picoplankton dominates the upper wa-
ter layers of the EMS through most of the year, e.g., in the
southern part of the Levantine basin in autumn (Yacobi et al.,
1995), in the Straits of Sicily in July (Brunet et al., 2007), in
the Cyprus eddy in May (Tanaka et al., 2007), in the Ionian
Sea in April/May (Casotti et al., 2003) and in the Aegean
Sea in March and September (Ignatiades et al., 2002). Pi-
coplankton is often dominant also in the DCM, both in the
western basin, e.g., at DYFAMED (Marty et al., 2002) and
in the Aegean Sea (Ignatiades et al., 2002).
The prokaryotic fraction of the picoplankton, namely
Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus, can reach abundance
values of up to 10
4
cells ml
−
1
(Zohary et al., 1998; Chris-
taki et al., 2001). At the Ligurian Sea DYFAMED station,
Synechococcus is dominant in the upper layers during strat-
ification periods when, despite the pronounced oligotrophy,
it is apparently responsible for maximum photosynthetic ef-
ficiency values, probably due to its capacity to cope with
low nutrient conditions (Marty and Chiaverini, 2002). By
contrast, as in other oceans, prochlorophytes are most often
found in deeper layers in stratified conditions (Yacobi et al.,
1995; Li et al., 1993), with a sharp peak near the bottom
of the euphotic zone (Zohary et al., 1998; Partensky et al.,
1999; Christaki et al., 2001), while they become abundant at
surface over the autumn/winter (Fig. 9, Marty et al., 2002).
However, prochlorophytes have been found to be abundant
in surface waters even in summer (Vaulot et al., 1990). In
fact, two distinct ecotypes of Prochlorococcus exist (Moore
et al., 1998), which show preferences for high-and low-light
conditions, respectively. Both types, substituting one another
along the water column, have been identified for example in
the Straits of Sicily (Brunet et al., 2007).
In addition to prokaryotes, quite a high diversity of eukary-
otes may be found within the picoplanktonic fraction (Ta-
ble 2), including prasinophytes, pelagophytes, prymnesio-
phytes and chrysophytes. Based on epifluorescence counts,
tiny (<3 µm) autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms were
dominant (in the order of 10
3
–10
4
cells ml
−
1
, ca 75% of the
<
10 µm size fraction) across the MS in June 1999 (Chris-
taki et al., 2001). Several non-colonial picodiatoms (e.g.,
some Chaetoceros, Thalassiosira, Minidiscus, Skeletonema
and some cymatosiracean species) have also been found to
be abundant in some cases (Delgado et al., 1992, Sarno and
Zingone, unpublished data), although their small size may
prevent their identification even at the class level.
In general, it is difficult to interpret the apparent differ-
ences in the distribution and relative contribution of eukary-
otes to picoplankton biomass, mainly because of the few and
scattered data and of the rather low and different taxonomic
resolution provided by the various identification methods
mentioned above. Specific distribution patterns have been
gleaned in some cases from pigment signatures of different
groups of picoeukaryotes. For example, pelagophytes have
been found to be important in deep waters at several sites,
e.g., in the Alboran Sea (Claustre et al., 1994) and in other
areas of the western MS (Barlow et al., 1997), as well as in
the Straits of Sicily (Brunet et al., 2006, 2007). Recently
developed molecular methods not only add evidence of the
actual abundance and diversity of tiny eukaryotes but also al-
low tracing their seasonal succession (McDonald et al., 2007)
and spatial distribution (Fig. 10; Marie et al., 2006; Foulon
et al., 2008). A more extensive application of these methods
in oceanography will contribute to build up knowledge on the
specific ecological role of one of the least known component
of the MS phytoplankton.
3.2.2
The nanoplankton
The size component smaller than 20 µm, commonly defined
as nanoplankton, is mainly constituted of small flagellates
(generally <5 µm) and dinoflagellates, mostly naked species,
in addition to coccolithophores and to a limited number of
small solitary diatom species. In many cases, single cells
of colonial diatoms are also smaller than 20 µm, but they are
treated in a separate section because of their larger functional
size and quite distinct ecological role. Small nanoflagellates
are the dominant group in terms of cell numbers most of the
year in oligotrophic MS waters (Revelante and Gilmartin,
1976; Malej et al., 1995; Totti et al., 1999; Decembrini et al.,
2009). Similarly to the <3 µm eukaryotic fraction, a long-
standing lack of taxonomic resolution for these heteroge-
neous species has lead to the view that they do not vary
significantly in quality and quantity over time and space,
probably because they are controlled by equally fast-growing
predators (Banse, 1995; Smetacek, 2002). However, there
are several indications that nanoflagellates do vary in space
and time, and may also contribute significantly to blooms,
e.g., in the Catalan Sea (Margalef and Castellv´ı, 1967) and at
DYFAMED (Marty et al., 2002).
Based on pigment signatures, prymnesiophyceans repre-
sent a large part of nanoflagellates most of the year (Fig. 9,
Marty et al., 2002) and at several localities (Latasa et al.,
1992; Claustre et al., 1994; Bustillos-Guzm´an et al., 1995;
Barlow et al., 1997; Zohary et al., 1998). Among them, the
coccolithophores deserve a special mention, as they show
a high diversity in the MS (Cros and Fortuno, 2002). The
widespread species Emiliania huxleyi is generally the most
frequent and dominant within this group, although it does
not seem to form such spectacular blooms as those revealed
by satellite images, e.g., in the North Sea. Coccolithophores
have been found to constitute large part of the population
in autumn and winter, e.g., in the Rhodos gyre area (64%,
Gotsis-Skretas et al., 1999; Malinverno et al., 2003), in the
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