I. Siokou-Frangou et al.: Mediterranean plankton
1547
The two factors affecting the vertical flux of nutrients to
the photic zone allowing new primary production are the
depth of the mixing and the subsurface nutrient concentra-
tions. A synthetic view of the mixed layer depth in differ-
ent seasons is reported in Fig. 3. The main features are:
i) the presence of few sites where maximum depth of mix-
ing is greater than 200 m.
Sub-basin cyclonic gyres and
the large cyclonic area of the NW MS are likely the only
sites where the doming of isopycnals may increase vertical
transport of nutrients at the time of the winter convective
events; ii) clear differences among regions in the time when
the mixed layer reaches the maximum depth; iii) a difference
in the duration of the stratification season among different
areas, with layer thickness variability, i.e., difference in the
location of the pycnocline. As for the available nutrient pool,
an inventory of average winter nitrate concentrations in sur-
face (10 m) and subsurface (125 m) waters is represented in
Fig. 4, based on the MEDAR-MEDATLAS data base (http:
//www.ifremer.fr/medar/). Although not fully processed for
quality control, these data provide a comprehensive spatial
overview for the basin. The two maps demonstrate the effect
of the processes represented in Fig. 3, but also highlight the
role played by the cyclonic structures sketched in Fig. 2. In
addition, Fig. 4 shows the very strong west-east gradient in
subsurface nutrient concentration.
Nutrient concentrations in coastal upwelling areas are
lower than those found in other upwelling systems (Fig. 4),
probably because the duration of upwelling events is very
short, but also because of the lower concentrations of nu-
trients in the subsurface nutrient pool. These in turn de-
pend on the anti-estuarine circulation discussed above, which
prevents an accumulation of remineralized nutrients in the
deeper layers of the basin. Therefore, upwelling areas do not
display a striking difference in biological production as com-
pared to other active areas of the basin. By contrast, in situ
observations and modeling studies suggest that mesoscale
and submesoscale processes may affect biological activity in
the MS, namely in: i) active frontal regions (North Balearic-
Catalan, Almeria-Oran, North-East Aegean Sea Fronts) (e.g.,
Estrada and Salat, 1989; Estrada, 1991; Zervoudaki et al.,
2007), ii) deep convection areas (Gulf of Lion, South Adri-
atic Gyre, Rhodos Gyre) (e.g., L´evy et al., 1998a,b; Siokou-
Frangou et al., 1999; Gacic et al., 2002), and iii) sites where
coastal morphology and intense wind stress generate a strong
input of potential vorticity that leads to the formation of ener-
getic filaments (Wang et al., 1988; Bignami et al., 2008). The
latter process may significantly contribute to the dispersal of
coastal inputs toward the open sea, along with plankton. En-
ergetic filaments, previously detected only through Sea Sur-
face Temperature anomalies, are also frequently observed in
high resolution colour remote sensing chl a maps (Iermano
et al., 2009).
External inputs from the coasts play a significant role in
the MS. There are only three major rivers, the Po in the North
Adriatic Sea, the Rhone in the Gulf of Lions and the Nile in
Fig. 4. Average nitrate concentration (µmol l
−
1
) at 10 m (upper panel) and 125 m (lower panel) in winter.
77
Fig. 4. Average nitrate concentration (µmol l
−
1
) at 10 m (upper
panel) and 125 m (lower panel) in winter.
the South East Levantine Sea. The Nile, however, has suf-
fered a dramatic decrease in water transport over the last
decades, possibly suggesting a concurrent, though not pro-
portional decrease in nutrient inputs. In fact, the relevance of
riverine runoff to overall nutrient fluxes is still uncertain, de-
spite several general (e.g., Ludwig et al., 2009) and regional
studies (e.g., Degobbis and Gilmartin, 1990; Skoulikidis and
Gritzalis, 1998; Cruzado et al., 2002; Moutin et al., 1998).
More important at times is the deposition of aerial dust,
which however is difficult to quantify correctly because at-
mospheric inputs are only monitored at a few sites located
along the coasts. Despite the associated uncertainties, bud-
get calculations (Ribera d’Alcal´a et al., 2003; Krom et al.,
2004) and, more recently, isotopic data (Krom et al., 2004;
Sandroni et al., 2007; Schlarbaum et al., 2009) suggest that
atmospheric inputs support a significant amount of new pro-
duction, especially in the EMS. In particular, phosphorus
from atmosphere may account for up to 40% of primary pro-
duction, while nitrogen input may be sufficient for all of the
export production, at least in the EMS (Bergametti, 1987;
Migon et al., 1989; Guerzoni et al., 1999; Kouvarakis et al.,
2001; Markaki et al., 2003). Atmospheric inputs are clearly
a crucial factor in the functioning of the basin. A notewor-
thy biogeochemical feature in the MS is the very high N/P
ratio in its deep layers. Processes leading to this anomalous
feature are still controversial, but the high N/P ratio of atmo-
spheric inputs indicates that they are among the factors that
contribute to the unbalanced ratio recorded in Mediterranean
waters (e.g., Markaki et al., 2008; Mara et al., 2009).
Markaki et al. (2008) also reported that between 30 and
40% of the atmospheric N and P input to the basin is in
organic form, which highlights the role of these inputs as
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