7
By the early 1880s conducting was, at best, a nascent profession. More often than not,
those who conducted saw themselves as composers. Even pianist and conductor Hans
von Bülow (who conducted in Meiningen and Berlin), someone Mahler admired—a
protégé of Liszt, then Wagner’s enthusiastic proponent, and by the 1880s a close
associate of Brahms—saw himself as a composer. Throughout the 19th century
performing music in public suggested the implicit demand that one present not merely the
repertoire of the past, but one’s own compositions and music by contemporaries. To earn
enough to live on Mahler began to conduct and taught piano lessons to private pupils. His
first experience as a conductor was in 1880 in Bad Hall in upper Austria. He then went on
to Laibach, in Slovenia. Mahler was so successful that he was recruited in 1883 to
Olmütz, and then to Kassel. By 1887 Mahler had conducted in Prague and Leipzig. In
1888 at age 28 he became the music director of the Hungarian Royal Opera in Budapest.
And in 1891 he became conductor at the state theater in Hamburg, a post he relinquished
in 1897 to return to Vienna, at age 37, as music director of the Imperial Opera.
As a young conductor Mahler was regarded as hot tempered, dynamic, intense, and
uncompromising, intent on seeing through his own ideas, even at the risk of being fired.
Between 1880 and 1897 he gained remarkable experience in the opera pit, conducting
everything from Wagner and Karl Goldmark to Mozart, Albert Lortzing, Daniel Auber,
and Giacomo Meyerbeer. He was 26 when he got his first chance to conduct the Ninth
Symphony of Beethoven.
Throughout the 17 years between his first post in Bad Hall and his call to Vienna in 1897
Mahler was determined to make his mark as a composer. In 1887 he agreed to complete
Carl Maria von Weber’s unfinished operatic comedy Die drei Pintos. Having stumbled
the same year upon Ludwig Arnim and Clemens Brentano’s collection of folk poetry,
Des Knaben Wunderhorn, Mahler began to set some of its texts to music. Inspired in part
by Adam Mickiewicz and to a lesser extent by Jean Paul, Mahler, having experienced
difficulty coming to terms with the operatic form, turned his attention to the symphony.
He was influenced by a tendency within romanticism, pioneered by Liszt and linked to
Beethoven, particularly the Sixth and Ninth Symphonies, toward so-called program
music. Liszt’s idea of program music was the symphonic tone poem that integrated the
techniques and expectations inherited from the Classical style, those associated with
sonata form and the development of themes in long instrumental structures into a
narrative framework.
Instrumental music then might tell a story and evoke the mental pictures and emotions
engendered by literature or one’s direct experience of the world. Music began to take on
aspects of representation, the character of prose, and the suggestion of painterly realism.
When Mahler began to sketch his first two symphonies, each had a program, much in the
spirit of Berlioz’s Symphonie fantastique or Liszt’s Faust or Dante Symphonies. Mahler
turned to the literary texts and tradition to which he would remain loyal his entire
career—those of early 19th-century romanticism. The young composer tentatively but
courageously titled his first symphony “Titan,” suggestive of the life of a Byronic hero;
he called the second “Todtenfeier,” suggestive of the tragedy of the death of the
Romantic hero.
8
The year 1889 was crucial. It was the year of his father’s death and Mahler’s first
symphony, titled at its premiere in Budapest “a symphonic poem,” entirely in the spirit of
Liszt. Throughout the 1890s, while he was working hard as a conductor, Mahler
continued to compose and orchestrate songs, but few of his works were performed. Not
until 1895 and 1896 did Mahler see the first two symphonies performed, as well as the
Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (“Songs of a Wayfarer”) and selections from his Third
Symphony. By the time Mahler returned to Vienna, his three symphonies and a host of
his songs were known. But his fame rested on his meteoric career as a conductor and his
reputation as an innovator and reformer of musical institutions. After arriving in Vienna
he made striking changes at the Opera. He darkened the house during performances to
ensure proper audience attention. He lowered the pit, giving the opera house a more
effective acoustic and the possibility of a scenic illusion reminiscent of Bayreuth. He
opened up the cuts in Wagner’s works. He recruited new talent and engaged young artists
to design productions, Alfred Roller in particular. Inspired by the Viennese Secession and
the writings of Adolphe Appia, Roller and Mahler unveiled new productions of operas by
Mozart and Wagner, using light, form, and color as symbols, thereby moving away from
the illustrative realism of conventional naturalistic scene painting.
By 1900 both Bruckner and Brahms were dead. Mahler quickly filled the vacuum,
emerging as a charismatic figure, a larger-than-life personality in Vienna and arguably
the city’s most powerful and fascinating citizen within the world of music. But the
Vienna to which Mahler returned in 1897 was a somewhat different place from the one
he had known in the 1870s. In 1897, the racist ideology associated with the anti-Semitic
politics of Christian Socialism and the pan-German movement had come to dominate the
politics of the city. In order to gain the appointment as director of the Vienna Opera,
Mahler converted to Catholicism. But, conversion notwithstanding, he always remained a
Jew. He became a target of anti-Semitic attacks. His reforms angered cultural
conservatives, some of whom were Jews, such as the critic Robert Hirschfeld. Mahler re-
orchestrated late Beethoven, rewrote Mozart and Gluck, and improved on Schumann’s
instrumentation. He was perceived as arrogant, and there were those who found his music
pretentious, ugly, formless, and tiresome. These critics lamented Mahler’s misplaced
ambitions as a composer and urged him to stick to conducting. Yet while he was at the
helm of Vienna’s most prestigious cultural institution, Mahler deepened his friendships
with and allegiances to the leading composers and performers in Europe, Richard Strauss
foremost among them.
At the same time, Mahler gained many friends and supporters in the city in his decade of
the Vienna Opera. His love life included liaisons with the singers Anna von Mildenburg
and Selma Kurz and a deeply sensitive violinist, Natalie Bauer-Lechner, whose
recollections of Mahler have become an indispensable source for his biography. His
Viennese friends included Guido Adler, the dean of music historians and a professor at
the University, the writer Siegfried Lipiner, members of the Vienna Secession, and a host
of prominent journalists, poets, and architects. He traveled in the highest literary and
cultural circles.