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body, whose weight has to be determined, enters with the iron. Were they not both heavy, they
could not enter into this relation, and the one could therefore not serve as the expression of the
weight of the other. When we throw both into the scales, we see in reality, that as weight they are
both the same, and that, therefore, when taken in proper proportions, they have the same weight.
Just as the substance iron, as a measure of weight, represents in relation to the sugar-loaf weight
alone, so, in our expression of value, the material object, coat, in relation to the linen, represents
value alone.
Here, however, the analogy ceases. The iron, in the expression of the weight of the sugar-loaf,
represents a natural property common to both bodies, namely their weight; but the coat, in the
expression of value of the linen, represents a non-natural property of both, something purely
social, namely, their value.
Since the relative form of value of a commodity – the linen, for example – expresses the value of
that commodity, as being something wholly different from its substance and properties, as being,
for instance, coat-like, we see that this expression itself indicates that some social relation lies at
the bottom of it. With the equivalent form it is just the contrary. The very essence of this form is
that the material commodity itself – the coat – just as it is, expresses value, and is endowed with
the form of value by Nature itself. Of course this holds good only so long as the value relation
exists, in which the coat stands in the position of equivalent to the linen.
22
Since, however, the
properties of a thing are not the result of its relations to other things, but only manifest themselves
in such relations, the coat seems to be endowed with its equivalent form, its property of being
directly exchangeable, just as much by Nature as it is endowed with the property of being heavy,
or the capacity to keep us warm. Hence the enigmatical character of the equivalent form which
escapes the notice of the bourgeois political economist, until this form, completely developed,
confronts him in the shape of money. He then seeks to explain away the mystical character of
gold and silver, by substituting for them less dazzling commodities, and by reciting, with ever
renewed satisfaction, the catalogue of all possible commodities which at one time or another have
played the part of equivalent. He has not the least suspicion that the most simple expression of
value, such as 20 yds of linen = 1 coat, already propounds the riddle of the equivalent form for
our solution.
The body of the commodity that serves as the equivalent, figures as the materialisation of human
labour in the abstract, and is at the same time the product of some specifically useful concrete
labour. This concrete labour becomes, therefore, the medium for expressing abstract human
labour. If on the one hand the coat ranks as nothing but the embodiment of abstract human labour,
so, on the other hand, the tailoring which is actually embodied in it, counts as nothing but the
form under which that abstract labour is realised. In the expression of value of the linen, the
utility of the tailoring consists, not in making clothes, but in making an object, which we at once
recognise to be Value, and therefore to be a congelation of labour, but of labour indistinguishable
from that realised in the value of the linen. In order to act as such a mirror of value, the labour of
tailoring must reflect nothing besides its own abstract quality of being human labour generally.
In tailoring, as well as in weaving, human labour power is expended. Both, therefore, possess the
general property of being human labour, and may, therefore, in certain cases, such as in the
production of value, have to be considered under this aspect alone. There is nothing mysterious in
this. But in the expression of value there is a complete turn of the tables. For instance, how is the
fact to be expressed that weaving creates the value of the linen, not by virtue of being weaving, as
such, but by reason of its general property of being human labour? Simply by opposing to
weaving that other particular form of concrete labour (in this instance tailoring), which produces
the equivalent of the product of weaving. Just as the coat in its bodily form became a direct
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Chapter 1
expression of value, so now does tailoring, a concrete form of labour, appear as the direct and
palpable embodiment of human labour generally.
Hence, the second peculiarity of the equivalent form is, that concrete labour becomes the form
under which its opposite, abstract human labour, manifests itself.
But because this concrete labour, tailoring in our case, ranks as, and is directly identified with,
undifferentiated human labour, it also ranks as identical with any other sort of labour, and
therefore with that embodied in the linen. Consequently, although, like all other commodity-
producing labour, it is the labour of private individuals, yet, at the same time, it ranks as labour
directly social in its character. This is the reason why it results in a product directly exchangeable
with other commodities. We have then a third peculiarity of the equivalent form, namely, that the
labour of private individuals takes the form of its opposite, labour directly social in its form.
The two latter peculiarities of the equivalent form will become more intelligible if we go back to
the great thinker who was the first to analyse so many forms, whether of thought, society, or
Nature, and amongst them also the form of value. I mean Aristotle.
In the first place, he clearly enunciates that the money form of commodities is only the further
development of the simple form of value – i.e., of the expression of the value of one commodity
in some other commodity taken at random; for he says:
5 beds = 1 house (
χλιναι πεντε αντι οιχια
ς)
is not to be distinguished from
5 beds = so much money. (
χλιναι πεντε αντι ... οσον αι πεντε χλιναι)
He further sees that the value relation which gives rise to this expression makes it necessary that
the house should qualitatively be made the equal of the bed, and that, without such an
equalisation, these two clearly different things could not be compared with each other as
commensurable quantities. “Exchange,” he says, “cannot take place without equality, and
equality not without commensurability". (
ουτ ισοτη
ς µη ουσης σνµµετριας). Here, however,
he comes to a stop, and gives up the further analysis of the form of value. “It is, however, in
reality, impossible (
τη µεν ουν αληθεια αδυνατον), that such unlike things can be
commensurable” – i.e., qualitatively equal. Such an equalisation can only be something foreign to
their real nature, consequently only “a makeshift for practical purposes.”
Aristotle therefore, himself, tells us what barred the way to his further analysis; it was the absence
of any concept of value. What is that equal something, that common substance, which admits of
the value of the beds being expressed by a house? Such a thing, in truth, cannot exist, says
Aristotle. And why not? Compared with the beds, the house does represent something equal to
them, in so far as it represents what is really equal, both in the beds and the house. And that is –
human labour.
There was, however, an important fact which prevented Aristotle from seeing that, to attribute
value to commodities, is merely a mode of expressing all labour as equal human labour, and
consequently as labour of equal quality. Greek society was founded upon slavery, and had,
therefore, for its natural basis, the inequality of men and of their labour powers. The secret of the
expression of value, namely, that all kinds of labour are equal and equivalent, because, and so far
as they are human labour in general, cannot be deciphered, until the notion of human equality has
already acquired the fixity of a popular prejudice. This, however, is possible only in a society in
which the great mass of the produce of labour takes the form of commodities, in which,
consequently, the dominant relation between man and man, is that of owners of commodities. The
brilliancy of Aristotle’s genius is shown by this alone, that he discovered, in the expression of the