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D I V E R S I T Y A N D S T R U C T U R E D I N T E R A C T I O N S
may be the best verification we can achieve in settings of substantial com-
plexity (Crutchfield and Schuster 2003).
Thus, the many relevant variables, the immense number of combina-
tions of these variables that exist, and their organization into multiple
levels of analysis make understanding organized social life a complex en-
deavor. If every social science discipline or subdiscipline uses a different
language for key terms and focuses on different levels of explanation as
the “proper” way to understand behavior and outcomes, one can under-
stand why discourse may resemble a Tower of Babel rather than a cumula-
tive body of knowledge. This book is devoted to the task of building
on the efforts of many scholars to develop a conceptual approach that
hopefully has a higher chance of cumulation than many of the separate
paths currently in vogue in contemporary social sciences.
Holons: Nested Part-Whole Units of Analysis
Like good geographic maps, the IAD framework can be presented at
scales ranging from exceedingly fine-grained to extremely broad-grained.
Human decision making is the result of many layers of internal processing
starting with the biophysical structure, but with layers upon layers of
cognitive structure on top of the biophysical components (Hofstadter
1979). Further, many of the values pursued by individuals are intrinsic
values that may not be represented by external material objects, and their
presence and strength are important parts of the individual to be exam-
ined. Building on top of the single individual are structures composed of
multiple individuals—families, firms, industries, nations, and many other
units—themselves composed of many parts and, in turn, parts of still
larger structures. What is a whole system at one level is a part of a system
at another level.
Arthur Koestler (1973) refers to such nested subassemblies of part-
whole units in complex adaptive systems as holons. “The term holon may
be applied to any stable sub-whole in an organismic or social hierarchy,
which displays rule-governed behaviour and/or structural Gestalt con-
stancy” (291). Christopher Alexander (1964) earlier conceptualized all
components of social arrangements as having a pattern and being a unit.
Units have subunits and are themselves parts of larger units that fit to-
gether as a pattern. Koestler asserts that a “hierarchically organized whole
cannot be ‘reduced’ to its elementary parts; but it can be ‘dissected’ into
its constituent branches on which the holons represent the nodes of the
tree, and the lines connecting them the channels of communication, con-
trol or transportation, as the case may be” (1973, 291). Thus, much of
the analysis presented in this book will be a form of “dissecting” complex
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C H A P T E R O N E
systems into composite holons that are then dissected further. Explana-
tions occur at multiple levels and different spatial and temporal scales.
Because explanations occur at multiple levels and different spatial and
temporal scales, the relevant theoretical concepts needed to understand
phenomena at one level do not necessarily scale up or down. One of the
core puzzles facing the field of landscape ecology, for example, is the prob-
lem of identifying the scale at which a process or phenomenon occurs.
According to Pickett and Cadenasso (1995, 333), “The basic question
about scale in ecology consists of determining whether a given phenome-
non appears or applies across a broad range of scales, or whether it is
limited to a narrow range of scales” (see also S. Levin 1992).
The parts used to construct a holon are frequently not descriptive of
the holon they have created. A house is constructed out of floor joists,
roof beams, lumber, roofing material, nails, and so forth. When one wants
to talk about the house itself, one usually talks about the number of
rooms, the style of the house, the number of stories, rather than the num-
ber of nails used in construction—even though a contractor and a hard-
ware salesperson may try to estimate exactly this variable at some point
during construction. When one wants to talk about the street on which
the house is located, one uses terms such as the size of the lots, the width
of the road, the complementarity or lack of complementarity of the build-
ing style, and the like. Descriptions of a neighborhood will use still differ-
ent concepts, as will a description of an urban or rural political jurisdic-
tion in which a neighborhood is located. On the other hand, some
concepts can be used to dissect holons operating at different scales of
analysis.
Consequently, the institutional analyst faces a major challenge in identi-
fying the appropriate level of analysis relevant to addressing a particular
puzzle and learning an appropriate language for understanding at least
that focal level and one or two levels above and below that focal level. It
is not only social scientists who face this problem. At a meeting of the
global change scientists held in Bonn in March of 2001, Peter Lemke of
the World Climate Research Project indicated that the earlier emphasis in
climate research was all on global weather forecasts. This has proved to
be a myth and a delusion. Now they recognize that to do good weather
forecasting, one has to have detailed local models supplemented by global
weather models. Both local and global are needed. They are complemen-
tary rather than competitive. Physical scientists are trying now in their
global models to integrate some of the more localized conditions, but that
turns out to be very difficult.
Ecologists have struggled with understanding ecological systems com-
posed of communities, modular units within communities, subunits
within these, and attributes of the species in a community (such as diver-