Dear Reader: This is a crude draft as of August 15, 2018. The three asterisks or the bold

[The chapter, like the last two, is too long now;

split when finished]
Rhetoric might ride as a little wave of talk upon deeper currents of biology or interest or the means of production. Much of social science and history for most of the twentieth century assumed so. I don’t think the assumption was correct. I don’t think it is obvious, or even very sensible, to assume always and without scientific inquiry that matter always trumps mind.

My friend the economist Mark Blaug once said to me, in effect, "Isn't it remarkable that much of moral conduct doesn't need explicit ideology, because much of the socialization of people is tacit. Isn't it the tacit socialization at your mother's knees—and perhaps even the biological imperative in your father's genes—that must be explained? Do we need to drone on and on about theories of ethics and their historical change?" His remarks are anti-verbal: look for interest, he says, and instinct. Follow the money. Set aside the mere words. In this he joins many social theorists of his generation.

And I answer to Blaug: I understand your impatience, and agree that interest is always worth examining. And some of the socialization is tacit, and some even is hardwired. It seems to be hardwired at any rate in the broad method of, say, social shaming, if not in the detailed rules about what exactly is shameful. We are hardwired, for example, as another economist friend of mine, Alexander Field, argues, not to kill each other on meeting.³⁵⁰ The usual monster of self-interest imagined by economists and many other observers of society would not hesitate for an instant.

But of course even in this case we can rather easily be socialized by words, even at our mothers' knees, to kill the enemies of Rome on meeting, or at any rate at a convenient distance. The particular enemies are highly specific to a culture and time, demonized in an ideology, often explicit. An ideology of German superiority socialized Germans to kill Poles. An ideology of British imperialism socialized Englishmen to kill Zulus. An ideology of American manifest destiny socialized Americans to kill Sauk and Sioux. I repeat: of course. And it is not minor matter. Humans are both hard-wired and soft-wared. We can read at least part of the software's code, because it is expressed in the lines and especially between the lines in Molière's plays and Jane Austen's novels, in Paine's Common Sense and in Johnson's colloquies, in Candide and in The Sorrows of Young Werther.

I think—it is no astonishing discovery, but anyway it is what this book is arguing—that in northwestern Europe and especially in England the ruling ideology changed a great deal from 1600 to 1710 and then from 1710 to 1848, from Shakespeare's time to Addison's time, and then further to Macaulay's, with a significant mile mark reached at Adam Smith and 1776. In 1774 Edmund Burke, Irish born, told the freemen of Bristol who had just elected him and another man to Parliament, “We are now members for a rich commercial city; this city, however, is but a part of a rich commercial nation, the interests of which are various, multiform, and intricate. We are members for that great nation, which however is itself but part of a great empire. . . . All these wide-spread interests must be considered; must be reconciled if possible.”³⁵¹ Such a declaration of Burke’s intention to represent the commercial interests of the nation as much as the city, and the empire as much as the nation, would have been strange in 1674 and bizarre in 1574. The characteristic European site for thinking and acting moved from an French aristocrat's estate to an English bourgeois' town. And the change had big consequences.

* * * *
In evidence of the change in rhetoric towards 1800, consider what looks at first like a hard case. The characters in Jane Austen’s six mature and finished novels, published between 1811 and 1817, are of course smallish landholders and their pastors, mainly the lesser gentry, with the Army and the Navy off stage. She never portrays, and hardly mentions, the real heights of England’s tiny aristocracy. Her dedication of Emma to the Prince Regent, for example, was famously compelled. "3 or 4 families in a country village," she writes to her niece Anna in 1814, "are the very thing to work on."³⁵² We hear little or nothing of dukes and duchesses, and not much of the major county gentry. The horrid Lady Catherine de Bourgh of Pride and Prejudice “likes to have the distinction of rank preserved,” as evoked by her Norman-style name (though you might also observe that it is suspiciously bourgeois). Austen’s people bring along with their rise into the gentry an attitude of disapproval for the gaming tables and dueling grounds of the real aristocracy, or the obsession with hunting among the county bloods. “Drunk as a lord” is still proverbial. In the early nineteenth century, as Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall put it, the “claim [by the English middle class] to moral superiority was at the heart of their challenge to an earlier aristocracy.”³⁵³ Part of the embourgeoisfication of England 1600 to 1848, as F. M. L Thompson has long argued, consisted of tempering the upper classes with bourgeois values.³⁵⁴ Dukes took to walking about in sober business suits and serving as honorary board chairmen for gas works.

In the other class direction, Jane’s servants and children are entirely silent—barely mentioned. Her country villages seem bare of agricultural workers—contrast Hardy fifty years on. We hear of Mrs. Charles nursery-maid, but we do not hear her speak, or hear of the children who thronged these households. Remember that Jane's mother had eight children, six sons and two daughters. Yet the classes of children or servants or farm workers are all silent.

And none of Austen's major characters are conventionally bourgeois. “Characters in Austen,” observes Markman Ellis, rather overstating Austen’s position, “express a profound distaste for trade. . . . A consistent stream of conservative opinion throughout the eighteenth century continued to argue [against Addison and Steele and Defoe and NNNN] that active engagement in commerce vitiated any claims to gentility.”³⁵⁵ In Austen’s finished novels not a single merchant or manufacturer is so much as mentioned, though it is less surprising when one realizes that Austen Country, like Dickens country later on, was the south and southwest, the least industrial parts of England at the time—though London had only recently given up its ranking as the chief manufacturing area in Europe, and was still the trading hub. The most ordinarily bourgeois figure is Robert Martin, the farmer-suitor of Harriet Smith. Emma snobbishly persuades Harriet not to accept his offer, until the very end of the novel. Her unfinished Sanditon, though, does deal with the bourgeoisie—Jane’s favorite brother Henry (1771-150), who was a successful banker for a long time in London, had just gone bankrupt in the economic slump after Napoleon had been defeated. One wishes on that trivial ground, too, that she had not died at age 41.

So Austen wrote in a bourgeois genre, but did not on the whole bother with tradesmen. An anti-trade snobbery reigns within the tiny class that she examines, at least among the minor characters, or among the misled major characters. Marilyn Butler argued in a classic study that Austen was a right-wing figure, an anti-Jacobin: “the crucial action of her novels is in itself expressive of the conservative side in an active war of ideas.”³⁵⁶ But it is not exactly our twentieth-century ideological war. Other conservatives, like the poet William Cowper, whom Austen joined many of her contemporaries in admiring, were not anti-capitalist, though they worried—as Adam Smith did, too—about the dangers of excess. They were often anti-urban, that is, hostile to massed humanity, much in the spirit of recent radical environmentalism. Thus Cowper in The Task:

And burghers, men immaculate perhaps

In all their private functions, once combined,

Become a loathsome body, only fit

For dissolution, hurtful to the main.

Hence merchants, unimpeachable of sin

Against the charities of domestic life,

Incorporated, seem at once to lose

Their nature; and, disclaiming all regard

For mercy and the common rights of man,

Build factories with blood, conducting trade

At the sword’s point, and dyeing the white robe

Of innocent commercial Justice red.

Cowper, The Task, Bk. IV, lines 671-682

In citing the passage Markman Ellis takes it as saying that “in its modern form, commerce had grown cruel and corrupting in its search for profit at all cost.”³⁵⁷ His reading seems rather a projection of the hostility to trade among the clerisy after 1848. It is not in the text, which is about the evils of “man, associated and leagued with man,” whether for aristocratic or bourgeois purpose. The bourgeoisie after all were “men immaculate perhaps/ In all their private functions” and the merchants “unimpeachable of sin/ Against the charities of domestic life,” and commercial justice began “innocent,” all of which would be highly unlikely descriptions in a clerisy instructed by Marx. Jane Austen would not have drawn a moral from Cowper, as Ellis does, that “in the calculating spirit of trade . . . the enduring virtues of the English gentleman were narrowed, hardened and corrupted.”³⁵⁸ That’s late nineteenth-century rhetoric, not Jane’s. True, she was not a radical bourgeois writer, not at all. But she was not a modern socialist, either.

No celebration can be found in Austen of entrepreneurship or the thrusting enterprise of new men, to put it mildly. Not at all. But neither was she opposed to calculation or trade—merely favoring the country village as its site. What makes prudence into greed in her more foolish characters is precisely the absence of balancing justice or love or faith or temperance.³⁵⁹ She frequently visited in London the grand house of her brother Henry, who acted before and after her death as her literary agent, and showed no outrage towards his banking business, and certainly no outrage against her own profits from the literary trade.

And yet I would say—again, nothing original about it—that our Jane is highly economistic, and in this way bourgeois. For one thing she celebrates, if on a tiny social stage, the idealism of ordinary life that characterizes modernity, and economics. And it is a feature of the English novel from Robinson Crusoe forward that before they venture, the characters plan, consider, agonize about their material condition.³⁶⁰ One would do so in ordinary life, as against a heroic or holy or peasant-habitual life. The contrast is sharp with the medieval romance down to its parodic transformation in Don Quixote. Austen neither honors nor laughs at the heroic aristocratic gestures, the Christian martyrdom, the peasantly, goyisher-kop impulse. Calculation—dignified in self-conscious ethical development by the major characters and absurdly undignified in self-absorbed pursuit of narrow interest by many of the minor characters—is the ticket. It is the ticket to emotional maturity and to marriage, and marriage was the literal business of young women of the gentry, a truth universally acknowledged.³⁶¹ At age 13 Jane was already capable of Austenian irony about the whole business, and indeed about the ticket, writing of “Mr. Wilmot of Wilmot Lodge . . . the representative of a very ancient Family & possessed besides his paternal Estate, a considerable share in a Lead mine & a ticket in the Lottery.”³⁶²

The novel and the science of economics, called then "political economy," grew up at the same time as the novel, and share the subject of calculation about ordinary life. Alessandro Manzoni, the Italian Tolstoy, devoted an entire chapter of his masterpiece I Promessi Sposi (The Betrothed 1825-26, 1840; Chapter 12) to explaining the dire consequences of interfering with the grain market. You could reprint it for a lecture in Economics 101. But Austen, like Richardson and Manzoni, advocates both sense and sensibility, that is, both prudence and love among the traditional principal virtues. Those are the virtues honored. In this she is strikingly bourgeois, understanding the word as praiseworthy, not merely another word for “greedy.” The bourgeoisie has sense, and calculates, if not always correctly. But the good bourgeois has sensibility, too, and loves, if not always wisely.

Notice how impossible a carelessly aristocratic sentiment is in an Austen novel. Responsibility, honor/honesty in the bourgeois sense of keeping your word, and above all “amiability,” her most admired quality, play a larger part. Edgy heroism of a boy's sort does not. Doubtless Austen’s brothers Frank and Charles were gloriously heroic, and urged their men once more unto the breach. You didn’t rise in His Majesty's navy of Lord Nelson and Horatio Hornblower and Jack Aubrey to the rank of Admiral of the Fleet, as both of her sailor brothers did, without physical courage. The large Army and especially the large Navy of her time provided quasi-aristocratic careers for the sons of the lower gentry, like the brothers. Peter Earle suggests that the wars of the eighteenth century financed by sinking funds and the like “provided a useful niche for the younger sons of gentlemen, a trend which was eventually . . . to encourage a snobbish disdain for business as the eighteenth century went on.”³⁶³ A similar pseudo-aristocratization of the middle class, with a similar consequence in reversing the admiration for a business civilization, happens in Germany during the late nineteenth century on a much larger scale, to provide the officers for the gigantic armies of the Empire, mobilizable in weeks.

But in Austen's little world of 3 or 4 families in a country village, as in the Royal Navy, the most necessary virtue was the bourgeois virtue of prudence. Naval officers were of course expected to do their utmost, and were hanged if they didn’t, to encourage the others. But they were expected to be prudent as well as courageous. No wild charges for the guns, no throwing away an expensively trained life on gestures, no endangering a £105,000 ship Victory of His Majesty’s Navy ($420 million in present-day terms) by being an illiterate, peasantly navigator or a careless, aristocratic fighter.

In Austen the admiration of prudence is undercut, of course, when it shows as prudence only. The minor characters are often insanely prudent, mothers pushing their daughters up the marital tree, for example, with a single-mindedness that would delight a Samuelsonian economist. Of Lucy Steele’s success in the business of marriage in Pride and Prejudice our author remarks: “The whole of Lucy's behavior in the affair, and the prosperity which crowned it, therefore, may be held forth as a most encouraging instance of what an earnest, an unceasing attention to self-interest, however its progress may be apparently obstructed, will do in securing every advantage of fortune, with no other sacrifice than of time and conscience.”³⁶⁴ Or more famously, consider Mr. Collin's proposal to Elizabeth in Pride and Prejudice, an anticipation of Mr. Gradgrind’s argument to Louisa in Hard Times:

My reasons for marrying are, first, that I think it a right thing for every clergyman in easy circumstances (like myself) to set the example of matrimony in his parish. Secondly, that I am very convinced it will add very greatly to my happiness; and thirdly—which perhaps I ought to have mentioned earlier, that it is the particular advice of the very noble lady whom I have the honor of calling patroness.³⁶⁵

But the major characters never talk in this idiotically prudence-only way. They talk instead Smithian economics. Their behavior, and their talk about their behavior, always mixes prudence with love and justice and temperance and moral courage, as Smith always did. At any rate they achieve such admirable ethical balance by the last pages of the novel. They struggle. As the literary critic Elsie Michie argues, Jane Austen and Adam Smith are both chiefly concerned with the good and the bad that can come out of the pursuit of interest and the possession of wealth. “The changes in the depiction of the rich woman as we move from Pride and Prejudice to Mansfield Park to Emma,” Michie writes, “show Austen wrestling with the ambivalences we find in Smith's writings: the sense that in a commercial culture the desire for wealth will be both beneficial and harmful and the need to find a way to acknowledge and accept the universality of such self-interested impulses while at the same time imagining psychological and social mechanisms that will keep them in check.”³⁶⁶

The two virtues of the classical and Christian seven that are missing from Austen are the same ones missing also from Adam Smith (of whom it seems Austen got the gist indirectly; though her father’s library of 500 books doubtless had Smith anyway)—transcendent hope and faith and love of God. That is, Jane is not a Romantic novelist, even though she concerned herself exclusively with romance in its very recent sense of “affairs of the heart.” She does not take art as a model for life, and does not elevate the artist to a lonely pinnacle of heroism, or worship the Middle Ages, or have any of the other obsessions of Sir Walter Scott and later Romantics. Her Northanger Abbey, written it appears in the same year as Coleridge and Wordsworth’s Lyrical Ballads, was a spoof on the proto-Romantic gothic novel.

In this ethical connection what is especially odd is that she is not, either, much of a Christian novelist, or at any rate her characters, whether major or minor, make little of their Christianity. Hope and faith and love of God are Christian virtues. So the Christians had claimed from earliest times. But the Neo-classicism of the eighteenth century had put religion aside, without usually going all the way to the atheism that became so common a century later among advanced thinkers such as Hardy or Zola. The Romanticism after Austen revived talk of hope and faith and a love for Art or Nature or the Revolution as a necessary transcendent in people's lives, and the Sentimental Revolution of the 1780s in England had anticipated Romance. Yet Austen deals lightly with the transcendent. She was a daughter of a clergyman, courted by clergymen, and a sister to two clergyman, and the aunt or-great-aunt-in-law to clergymen. As a friend put it to me, “In an Austen novel you can’t spit without hitting an Anglican clergyman.” But she rarely mentions God, and uses the official word for an Anglican clergyman, “priest,” only once in her books.³⁶⁷ We know from other sources than her mainly a-religious novels (though the heroine of Northanger Abbey is Christian to set off the pagan absurdities of the gothic novel) that she was an eighteenth-century, broad-church Anglican. She clearly was no Enthusiast. She writes to her beloved niece Fanny Knight, advising her on a suitor: “and as to there being any objection from his Goodness, from the danger of his becoming even Evangelical, I cannot admit that. I am by no means convinced that we ought not all to be Evangelicals, and am at least persuaded that they who are so from Reason and Feeling, must be happiest and safest.”³⁶⁸ Note the mix of Reason and Feeling, sense and sensibility—showing, that is, a lack of understanding of the Evangelical temper. She therefore, writes Michael Wheeler, “eschews the kind of fervent religiosity that characterizes much of the religious fiction of her day.”³⁶⁹

It has often been remarked, further, that Austen is bourgeois in the sensible concern she has for money. Edward Copeland entitles both of his contributions to recent handbooks for the study of simply “Money.”³⁷⁰ Oliver McDonagh ***check spelling observed that Jane “was accustomed from childhood to hear money matters discussed in informed and detailed fashion; and the lessons she learned were driven home by her own comparative poverty.”³⁷¹ My undergraduate students who come from farms and other small businesses have the same informed grasp of the value of money, which eludes students from more privileged backgrounds. In the letter just quoted Jane tells the heiress Fanny that Mansfield Park has sold out its first edition. "I am very greedy and want to make the most of it; but,” adds Aunt Jane to the young heiress in a sharp turn, “you are much above caring about money. I shall not plague you with any particulars."³⁷²

Samuel Johnson said that no one but a blockhead wrote except for money, and Jane was no blockhead. She writes to her sister Cassandra expressing her pleasure in making so much as £400 from writing, twenty times the average annual income of a working family at the time—think in modern terms of royalties accumulating to $600,000. As Marilyn Butler explains, she felt in her last six years, 1811-1817, that she was an Author, because she was making money at it.³⁷³ It was her independence, and bespoke a prudence, temperance, hope, and courage similar to that of her sailor brothers. It was a bourgeois standard: when the buying public pays, you are a professional. In Chapter 8 of Persuasion, Austen’s last published novel, Captain Wentworth reminisces about a commercial triumph in capturing enemy vessels: "Ah! those were pleasant days when I had the Laconia! How fast I made money in her.” Nobody but a blockhead goes to sea except for money. Or to put it another way, Jane’s banker brother Henry, after his post-War bankruptcy, became an Anglican priest (curate or rector after 1817; died 1850). As Anthony Waterman has persuasively argued, in the early nineteenth century, before the rise of anti-commercial ideology in the European clerisy, there was nothing strange in this.³⁷⁴

Economics is the science of prudence, and prudence is the chief virtue of the bourgeoisie. So Jane was in the narrow sense an economist in her life and in her fiction, a follower of sense. But prudence is nothing like the only virtue, say Adam and Jane and I. Austen is of the Bourgeois Era. She is not attacking “the essentially selfish nature of the commercial imperative,” as Ellis puts it in his very modern way.³⁷⁵ Her foolish characters are selfish, the very word she uses to describe Lucy Steele.

Put it to the test: imagine that her first published novel, Sense and Sensibility, had emerged from the press not in 1811 but in 1611. No would have bought it, and it certainly would not have made its author pleased with her bourgeois professionalism. The gentry of which it spoke were at the time often questionably literate, especially the women who were such a large share of the audience for the later English novel. Unlike the urban bourgeoise, they had no need to do accounts and thus to read. Novels at the time, like plays, were supposed to display startling events, not the gradual development of ethical character—that awaited Puritan moralists like Bunyan and then the secularized versions of Defoe and then Richardson and then Austen. The only sympathetically portrayed bourgeois figure in Shakespeare, Antonio in the Merchant of Venice, startles us by impulsively agreeing to Shylock’s bargain in aid of Antonio’s beloved and aristocratic Bessanio. Antonio shows true love by not calculating for as long as a single line. Shylock calculates incessantly—or rather, miscalculates. And so do Austen’s minor characters. The major characters are more thoughtfully “rational.”

Austen, like Adam Smith, is above all an ethical writer. In her novels nothing much happens, of course, because the happenings are internal. If Austen is bourgeois, she is a model for good bourgeoisness—not sense alone, but combined with sensibility. Not amiability alone, but also a prudent marriage. (“I consider,” she declared in a letter, “everyone as having a right to marry once in their lives for love, if they can.”³⁷⁶) True, she doesn't so much as mention stockbrokers or mill owners. But so long after her death she has assumed a special place in the ethical education of the English-speaking, bourgeois world. I am thinking of her apotheosis at the hands of the English critic F. R. Leavis in the 1930s. It would alarm many of her readers then and now to say so, but her kind of people are the kind we want in our capitalist society—her major people, that is, who do not follow the modern economists, as her minor people often do, in relying on prudence only.

* * * *

If the bourgeoisie rose sharply in prestige, with their central virtue, prudence, and if the change in values resulted in an obsession with innovation, the evidence ought to appear all over British and American society. It does.³⁷⁷ For instance, one proof that the Bourgeois Era had well begun by the early 19^th century comes from a recent classic of English history, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 by Leonore Davidoff and Catherine Hall (1987), a multi-generational portrait of two provincial families. They were the Cadbury’s of Birmingham, Quakers selling tea, coffee, and at last chocolate, and the Taylors of Colchester, Evangelicals making and selling engravings and books. “Serious Christians” they were, both. “It is surely no accident,” wrote Donna Andrew in 1980, “that it was an Evangelical, Thomas Gisborne, in his Duties [An Enquiry Into the Duties of Men in the Higher and Middle Classes of Society in Great Britain: Resulting from Their Respective Stations, Professions, and Employments, 1794] who was among the first writers to use the term ‘middle class.’ Much of the evangelical literature was specifically addressed to this group and helped it to identify itself and its responsibilities.”³⁷⁸

They were influence by Mary Ryan’s 1981. Cradle of the Middle Class; The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865. Cambridge:

The middle class was elevated to the degree that royals like George III behaved so. George “in his later life . . . had embraced all those virtues increasingly adopted by the middling sort: piety, dignity, honesty [in a modern definition] and the love of a proper domestic life.” ³⁷⁹ His eldest son the long-suffering Prince Regent (then George IV) warred against middle-class values (and against his wife Charlotte who espoused them). But his younger brother, the Duke of Clarence (then William IV), called a royal truce, and Farmer George’s granddaughter Victoria reigned 1837-1901 with great success by embodying bourgeois values. The bourgeoisie’s “rejection of landed wealth as the source of honor and insistence on the primacy of the inner spirit brought with it a preoccupation with the domestic as a necessary basis for a good Christian life.”³⁸⁰ Another testimony to the unusually bourgeois character of the English is that dueling ended there long before it did on the Continent (the last known English duel occurred in 1852).³⁸¹

* * * *
But after all, mere words can’t matter, can they? Surely interests rule?

Such a hermeneutics of suspicion itself arose from the new prestige of prudence, and came in the late nineteenth century to be shared by left and right. The vulgar Marxist and the cynical reactionary both believe, against the words of Lenin and Hitler in the twentieth century, that words don’t matter—though oddly, as I have repeatedly noted, they keep on writing. But in fact, for good or ill, since 1600 the words, ideas, rhetoric have come to matter steadily more, not less, even though the prestige of their name, “rhetoric,” has declined. The materialists believe the opposite, that words matter less and less—in recent times expressed on the left by anti-corporatists and on the right by realists in foreign policy. But it is the main burden of Enlightenment, free-market ideology, liberalism, Romanticism, post-Gramscian Marxism that words do matter. The material conditions themselves say so. A literate electorate studying the words on TV or on the internet continues a wordy tradition in the West since the scholastic universities and Gutenberg. The materialists may be correct scientifically speaking that interests rule, mainly. Or they might not be. It is an empirical matter. But at the least their prudence-only rhetoric should not be taken as an end point of inquiry, the unexamined premise of a materialist argument.

***Davidoff and Hall here, Family Fortunes: Men and Women of the English Middle Class, 1780-1850 (1987)
* * * *
A good thing or bad, this triumph of bourgeois virtues?

“The postclassical world,” as ***