Explore the history of electronics. Explore the history of electronics

Explore the history of electronics.

• Explore the history of electronics.

• Quantify the impact of integrated circuit technologies.

• Describe classification of electronic signals.

• Review circuit notation and theory.

• Introduce tolerance impacts and analysis.

• Describe problem solving approach

Braun invents the solid-state rectifier.

• Braun invents the solid-state rectifier.

• DeForest invents triode vacuum tube.

• 1907-1927

• First radio circuits developed from diodes and triodes.

• 1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent filed.

• Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories invent bipolar transistors.

• Commercial bipolar transistor production at Texas Instruments.

• Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley receive Nobel prize.

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 was awarded "for basic work on information and communication technology" with one half jointly to Zhores I. Alferov and Herbert Kroemer "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics" and the other half to Jack S. Kilby "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit“.

• The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 was awarded "for basic work on information and communication technology" with one half jointly to Zhores I. Alferov and Herbert Kroemer "for developing semiconductor heterostructures used in high-speed- and opto-electronics" and the other half to Jack S. Kilby "for his part in the invention of the integrated circuit“.

The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.

• The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.

• World transistor production has more than doubled every year for the past twenty years.

• Every year, more transistors are produced than in all previous years combined.

• Approximately 1018 transistors were produced in a recent year.

• Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the world.

• *Source: Gordon Moore’s Plenary address at the 2003 International Solid State Circuits Conference.

Feature size reductions enabled by process innovations.

• Feature size reductions enabled by process innovations.

• Smaller features lead to more transistors per unit area and therefore higher density.

Analog signals take on continuous values - typically current or voltage.

• Analog signals take on continuous values - typically current or voltage.

• Digital signals appear at discrete levels. Usually we use binary signals which utilize only two levels.

• One level is referred to as logical 1 and logical 0 is assigned to the other level.

Analog signals are continuous in time and voltage or current. (Charge can also be used as a signal conveyor.)

• Analog signals are continuous in time and voltage or current. (Charge can also be used as a signal conveyor.)

For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:

• For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is expressed as:

• The smallest possible voltage change is known as the least significant bit or LSB.

Analog input voltage vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number.

• Analog input voltage vx is converted to the nearest n-bit number.

• For a four bit converter, 0 → vx input yields a 0000 → 1111 digital output.

• Output is approximation of input due to the limited resolution of the n-bit output. Error is expressed as:

Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal

• Total signal = DC bias + time varying signal

• Resistance and conductance - R and G with same subscripts will denote reciprocal quantities. Most convenient form will be used within expressions.

Make a clear problem statement.

• Make a clear problem statement.

• List known information and given data.

• Define the unknowns required to solve the problem.

• List assumptions.

• Develop an approach to the solution.

• Perform the analysis based on the approach.

• Check the results and the assumptions.

• Has the problem been solved? Have all the unknowns been found?
• Is the math correct? Have the assumptions been satisfied?

• Evaluate the solution.

• Do the results satisfy reasonableness constraints?
• Are the values realizable?

• Use computer-aided analysis to verify hand analysis

If the power supply is ± 10 V, a calculated DC bias value of 15 V (not within the range of the power supply voltages) is unreasonable.

• If the power supply is ± 10 V, a calculated DC bias value of 15 V (not within the range of the power supply voltages) is unreasonable.

• Generally, our bias current levels will be between 1 μ A and a few hundred milliamps.

• A calculated bias current of 3.2 amps is probably unreasonable and should be reexamined.

• Peak-to-peak ac voltages should be within the power supply voltage range.

• A calculated component value that is unrealistic should be rechecked. For example, a resistance equal to 0.013 ohms.

• Given the inherent variations in most electronic components, three significant digits are adequate for representation of results. Three significant digits are used throughout the text.

The principle of conservation of energy implies that

• The principle of conservation of energy implies that

• The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is zero.

The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:

• The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:

• At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of that node.

The Thévenin-equivalent voltage is the voltage at the output terminals of the original circuit.

• The Thévenin-equivalent voltage is the voltage at the output terminals of the original circuit.

The Thévenin-equivalent resistance is the resistance measured across points A and B "looking back" into the circuit.

• The Thévenin-equivalent resistance is the resistance measured across points A and B "looking back" into the circuit.

• It is important to first replace all voltage- and current-sources with their internal resistances.

• For an ideal voltage source, this means replace the voltage source with a short circuit.

• For an ideal current source, this means replace the current source with an open circuit.

Problem: Find the Thévenin equivalent voltage at the output.

• Problem: Find the Thévenin equivalent voltage at the output.

• Solution:

• Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure.

• Unknowns: Thévenin equivalent voltage vth.

• Approach: Voltage source vth is defined as the output voltage with no load.

• Assumptions: None.

• Analysis: Next slide…

Problem: Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance.

• Problem: Find the Thévenin equivalent resistance.

• Solution:

• Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure.

• Unknowns: Thévenin equivalent Resistance Rth.

• Approach: Find Rth as the output equivalent resistance with independent sources set to zero.

• Assumptions: None.

• Analysis: Next slide…

Calculate the output current, IAB, with a shortcircuit as the load.

• Calculate the output current, IAB, with a shortcircuit as the load.

Problem: Find the Norton equivalent circuit.

• Problem: Find the Norton equivalent circuit.

• Solution:

• Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure.

• Unknowns: Norton equivalent short circuit current in.

• Approach: Evaluate current through output short circuit.

• Assumptions: None.

• Analysis: Next slide…

The SI unit of electrical conductance is the siemens, also known as the mho (ohm spelled backwards, symbol is ℧); it is the reciprocal of resistance in ohms.

• The SI unit of electrical conductance is the siemens, also known as the mho (ohm spelled backwards, symbol is ℧); it is the reciprocal of resistance in ohms.

Non repetitive signals have continuous spectra often occupying a broad range of frequencies

• Non repetitive signals have continuous spectra often occupying a broad range of frequencies

• Fourier theory tells us that repetitive signals are composed of a set of sinusoidal signals with distinct amplitude, frequency, and phase.

• The set of sinusoidal signals is known as a Fourier series.

• The frequency spectrum of a signal is the amplitude and phase components of the signal versus frequency.

Audible sounds 20 Hz - 20 KHz

• Audible sounds 20 Hz - 20 KHz

• Baseband TV 0 - 4.5 MHz

• FM Radio 88 - 108 MHz

• Television (Channels 2-6) 54 - 88 MHz

• Television (Channels 7-13) 174 - 216 MHz

• Maritime and Govt. Comm. 216 - 450 MHz

• Cell phones and other wireless 1710 - 2690 MHz

• Satellite TV 3.7 - 4.2 GHz

• Wireless Devices 5.0 - 5.5 GHz

Any periodic signal contains spectral components only at discrete frequencies related to the period of the original signal.

• Any periodic signal contains spectral components only at discrete frequencies related to the period of the original signal.

• A square wave is represented by the following Fourier series:

Analog signals are typically manipulated with linear amplifiers.

• Analog signals are typically manipulated with linear amplifiers.

• Although signals may be comprised of several different components, linearity permits us to use the superposition principle.

• Superposition allows us to calculate the effect of each of the different components of a signal individually and then add the individual contributions to the output.

All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.

• All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.

• Resistors can be purchased with  10%,  5%, and  1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often  10%.)
• Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as +20%/-50%.
• Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.

• Device parameters will also vary with temperature and age.

• Circuits must be designed to accommodate these variations.

• We will use worst-case and Monte Carlo (statistical) analysis to examine the effects of component parameter variations.

For symmetrical parameter variations

• For symmetrical parameter variations

• Pnom(1 - )  P  Pnom(1 + )

• For example, a 10K resistor with 5% percent tolerance could take on the following range of values:

• 10k(1 - 0.05)  R  10k(1 + 0.05)

• 9,500   R  10,500 

Worst-case analysis

• Worst-case analysis

• Parameters are manipulated to produce the worst-case min and max values of desired quantities.
• This can lead to over design since the worst-case combination of parameters is rare.
• It may be less expensive to discard a rare failure than to design for 100% yield.

• Monte-Carlo analysis

• Parameters are randomly varied to generate a set of statistics for desired outputs.
• The design can be optimized so that failures due to parameter variation are less frequent than failures due to other mechanisms.
• In this way, the design difficulty is better managed than a worst-case approach.

Problem: Find the nominal and worst-case values for output voltage and source current.

• Problem: Find the nominal and worst-case values for output voltage and source current.

• Solution:

• Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure.

• Unknowns: VOnom, VOmin , VOmax, IInom, IImin, IImax .

• Approach: Find nominal values and then select R1, R2, and VI values to generate extreme cases of the unknowns.

• Assumptions: None.

• Analysis: Next slides…

Parameters are varied randomly and output statistics are gathered.

• Parameters are varied randomly and output statistics are gathered.

• We use programs like MATLAB, Mathcad, SPICE, or a spreadsheet to complete a statistically significant set of calculations.

• For example, a resistor with Epsilon ε% tolerance can be expressed as:

Problem: Perform a Monte Carlo analysis and find the mean, standard deviation, min, and max for VO, IS, and power delivered from the source.

• Problem: Perform a Monte Carlo analysis and find the mean, standard deviation, min, and max for VO, IS, and power delivered from the source.

• Solution:

• Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values in figure.

• Unknowns: The mean, standard deviation, min, and max for VO, II, and PI.

• Approach: Use a spreadsheet to evaluate the circuit equations with random parameters.

• Assumptions: None.

• Analysis: Next slides…

Most circuit parameters are temperature sensitive.

• Most circuit parameters are temperature sensitive.

• P = Pnom(1+1∆T+ 2∆T2) where ∆T = T-Tnom

• Pnom is defined at Tnom

• Most versions of SPICE allow for the specification of TNOM, T, TC1(1), TC2(2).

• SPICE temperature model for resistor:

• R(T) = R(TNOM)*[1+TC1*(T-TNOM)+TC2*(T-TNOM)2]

• Many other components have similar models.

Most circuit parameters vary from less than ± 1 % to greater than ± 50%.

• Most circuit parameters vary from less than ± 1 % to greater than ± 50%.

• As a consequence, more than three significant digits is meaningless.

• Results in the text will be represented with three significant digits: 2.03 mA, 5.72 V, 0.0436 µA, and so on.

Problems 1.24, 1.25

• Problems 1.24, 1.25