7
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
Yupik/Asiatic Eskimo
“Eskimo” (Inuit and Yupik) is a general term for around 150,000 indigenous
residents of the Arctic zone from the Bering Strait to Greenland. These people
have a common origin and speak closely related languages and dialects. The
Russian side of the Bering Strait is home to the Yupik, or Asiatic Eskimo (Yupik is
their self-identification). At present there are about 1,800 people belonging to this
ethnic group living in Russia. Despite their small numbers, the Yupik people used
three different languages (called Chaplinski, Naukanski, and Sirenikski, based on
the names of three respective settlements) up to the end of the twentieth century.
The small community of the Inuit Eskimo that formerly lived on the Big Diomede
Island spoke their own language which belonged to a different language group.
At the beginning of the twentieth century there were five large and several smaller
Yupik communities in Chukotka, with their own settlements and traditional
territories. During the Soviet period each of these communities experienced
relocations, closures, and forced “mergers.” As a result only three Yupik/Eskimo
settlements are left out of the nineteen that existed in the beginning of the twentieth
century. Those are the communities of Uelkal, Sireniki, and Novoye Chaplino.
However, some cultural and linguistic differences persist to this day especially
among the people who belong to the old Chaplino, Naukan, and Sireniki groups.
Coastal (Maritime) Chukchi
The traditional social system of the coastal (maritime) Chukchi has not been
adequately studied since the research conducted by V. G. Bogoraz from 1895 to
1901. Most likely, at the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth
century, the coastal Chukchi also lived in stable communities of 150-400 people.
Unlike Eskimo, Chukchi coastal communities were characterized by their openness
to marriage, trade, and hunting alliances with the tundra Chukchi reindeer herders.
In difficult years some of the inhabitants of the coastal settlements would move to
the tundra to live together with their relatives there. Likewise, impoverished
reindeer herders from tundra camps would come out to the shore and join the sea
hunters.
Hunters and reindeer herders
Yupik and Chukchi sea hunting communities adhered to the same rules of land use
and maintained close family and trade ties with the neighboring settlements and
along the coastline. Many families had relatives and partners not only in nearby but
8
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
also in distant settlements, which guaranteed safe traveling and the exchange of
information and cultural innovations along the entire coastline.
The traditional relationships between marine hunters and reindeer herders in
Russian Beringia requires a special note. The Chukchi sea hunters and the Chukchi
reindeer herders shared familial ties and common language. In addition, reindeer
herding Chukchi and coastal communities, both Chukchi and Eskimo, shared
traditionally strong bonds of mutual aid that persist to this day.
The Chukotka Peninsula is a zone of high-risk reindeer herding. The proximity of
the sea and open water often brought ice-crust condition to the winter pastures in
the coastal areas. The areas adjacent to the marine shore suffered the most. In hard
years sea hunters always came to the rescue of the reindeer herders. In turn, in the
past, reindeer herders would literally save sea hunting communities from starvation
during tough winters when, for certain reason, hunting sea mammals was difficult
or impossible.
Aside from providing each other with help in extreme situations, the sea hunters
and reindeer herders have a tradition of regular annual exchanges of their
respective products. In the past these exchanges were mostly conducted during the
summer (August) and early fall (September) for butchering reindeer. To conduct
the exchange, coastal inhabitants prepared atympat – ringed seal and bearded seal
hides, blubber, and dried sea mammal meat, beluga whale sinews for thread,
bearded seal skins for the soles of shoes, bearded seal lines for harpoons (chaat),
and high boots sewn out of seal skins. In return they took reindeer meat and fat,
reindeer sinews, reindeer skins, ready-made fur stockings, coats, pants, and high
boots made of reindeer leggings from the herders. The Eskimo from Chaplino even
have specific words for these types of exchange trips: aki – “the one going or
riding south”; aki gakuk - “going south to exchange with the Chukchi reindeer
herders.”
The People Who Live Facing the Sea
“Sea hunters never hid from the sea. They didn’t settle in the far corners of
the bays and coves where it’s safe, but near the open sea, on the cape, where
the winds are, and the currents disperse the ice, where the whales and walrus
come close to the shore. The hunter is always waiting for the prey. Even when
he is walking along the shore he is still constantly looking at the sea and
taking notice of every detail. He is always trying to face the sea.”
Lyudmila Ainana, the town of Provideniya, 1989.