30
of despotism in the 19
th
century and a time of communal
subversion.
22
Iran witnessed disintegration and reconstruction of
its structure that sustained similar social organizations within
the same production relations depending on its position by
the outside world.
23
In the early 19
th
century, power and
wealth were distributed among classes unfairly. At this
period, 55% of the
people lived in villages, 20% in cities and
25% as nomads.
24
The initial phases of Qajars were
dominated by shah, his entourage and great tribe leaders. It
is possible to argue that Bakhtiaris, Kurds, Afshars,
Karaoguzs and Turkmens played active role in Iranian
politics due to their military strength. Since the mid-19
th
century, consolidation efforts of the central government led
to diminishing role of tribe chiefs and widened sphere of
influence for bureaucracy.
25
Besides all these social alignments, Iran’s
geographical constraints, ethnic and religious differences
were intermingled in the 19
th
century. While Persian-
speaking citizens resided in the central and southeastern
parts, various dialects of Turkish dominated the north and
eastern parts. The South and the west spoke Arabic as the
west and the northwest of the country spoke Kurdish,
Armenian and Georgian.
26
The deep impact of ethnic mosaic
has prevented an ethnic group to dominate for a long period
of time in Iran. However, a religious domination has been
established under Shiism and helped maintain Iran’s
geographical integrity. While Imamah (Shiite doctrine)
unified state and religion in Iran, Bábism that emerged in
1844 has become a source of inspiration for change and
reform in the second part of the 19
th
century thanks to its
social, political and cultural implications.
27
22
Ervand Abrahamian , “Oriental Despotism : The Case of Qajar Iran
”,
International Journal of Middle East Studies (IJMES) 5(1974), pp. 9 –21.
23
Ann K. S. Lambton,
Qajar Persia, Austin, 1987, p. 33-85; Ahmad Seyf,
“Commercialization of Agriculture: Production and Trade of Opium in
Persia, 1850-1906 ”,
IJMES, 16(1984), pp.233- 234.
24
M. H. Malik, “Capitalism in Nineteenth Century Iran”,
Middle Eastern
Studies, vol.: 30, No.:2 (1994), p.69; Lambton,
age., p. 210-211.
25
Nikki R. Kenddie, “The Iranian Power Structure and Social Change
1800-1969: An Overview”,
IJMES, 2(1971), p.5.
26
Abrahamian,
ibid, p.14-15.
27
Hamid Algar,
Religion and Stade in Iran, 1785-906, Berkeley, 1969, p.
137- 151; Mangol Bayat,
Iran’s First Revolution, Oxford, 991, p. 53-70;
31
Stagnant traditional production and shift in regional
trade in terms of quantity and its channels have led to
dislocation of population due to growing poverty and
increasing migrations in the early 19
th
century Iran. While a
region lived in poverty, another could enjoy abundance in
such insecure and unconnected environment of the 19
th
century. Developments in transport and transportation did
not improve social interaction; villages and towns were
established away from main routes in order to avoid
taxation, military enrollment and other requests from the
central government.
28
All these traditional socio-economic structures
underwent significant change after Western influence and
response by Qajars against this influence. While the middle
class was a local power in its own right in 1800s, it became a
strong economic and political power domestically and
internationally by 1900s.
29
Installment of telegram lines
(1859), maintenance of old roads, construction of new roads,
publishing of newspapers (1835), establishment of postal
systems in 1870s, facilitation of communication helped
narrow the distance between cities and created a new and
faster line of relations.
30
Iran’s integration into world capitalist economy
initiated local markets’ integration into Iranian economy;
import of manufactured goods revived domestic trade while
import of agriculture goods, particularly cotton, rice,
tobacco
and leather, initiated interaction among city and the country,
villagers and importers and money lenders and merchants.
31
Traditional handcrafts died after the influx of foreign
manufactured goods, especially in textile sector and with it
competition turned into hostility in public markets.
32
Even
Juan R. I. Cole, “Iranian Milenarianism and Democratic Tought in the 19
th
Century,
IJMES, 24(1992), p.1-23; Ahmet Ağaoğlu,
İran İnkılabı, Ankara,
1941, p. 63-70.
28
Ervand Abrahamian,
Iran Between Two Revolutions, Princeton, 1982,
p.34-35.
29
Lambton,
age., p.195-223.
30
Hafez Farman Farmayan, “The Forces of Modernization in Nineteenth
Century Iran: A Historcal Survey” ,
Conference on the beginnings of
Modernization in the Middle East, 1968, p. 151.
31
Malek,
agm., p. 69-77.
32
Ahmad Seyf, “Forein Firms and Local Merchants in Nineteenth-
Century Iran “,
Middle Eastern Studies, Vol. 36, No.: 4(4 October 2000),
p. 142-146.