The Alto and Ethernet System Xerox PARC in the 1970’s Butler Lampson October 17, 2006
Influences—“On the shoulders of giants” ARPA community - Man-computer symbiosis—Licklider
- Time-sharing: CTSS, SDS 940, Tenex
- Engelbart’s On-Line System
- Flex machine—Kay
- Arpanet
- Aloha packet radio network
Xerox—“Office of the future”
Alto in Context
Organization CSL - Hardware: Alto, Ethernet
- OS, Languages (BCPL, Mesa, Lisp)
- Printing, file servers
- Networking
- Bravo (→Word), Draw (→Illustrator), fonts
- Grapevine (email transport, server)
- Laurel (email client)
SSL - Printing, file servers
- Smalltalk
- Gypsy (→Word)
- Markup (→Paint)
Timeline 1960s Time-sharing, Sketchpad, NLS 1970s Xerox PARC - Alto, Ethernet, laser printers
- Bravo, Draw, Pup, Smalltalk
Altair, Apple II Internet 1980s - 81 Xerox Star, IBM PC
- 84 Macintosh, Laserwriter, MS Word/Excel
1990s Windows, Web
Themes Computers can be used as tools to help people think and communicate - Licklider
- ARPA time-sharing and networking
- Engelbart and NLS
- Alan Kay and Flex
Xerox: Office of the Future - How do we grow after copiers?
Personal Distributed Computing Personal - Under the control of a person and serves his needs.
- Performance is predictable, and fast enough
- Reliable and available.
- Not too hard to use
Distributed - Everything in the real world is distributed
- The computer is a communication device
- Personal + communication = distributed
- Need to share expensive devices too, esp. printers
Computing - We programmed, but users didn’t
Information Convenient For A Person Universal - Any (black-and-white) image, data, any software
- Words, pictures, music, ...
- Specialize with software
Ink on paper - Present images
- Point at places in the image
The Alto can do this quite well - For a single 8.5" x 11" sheet of paper
- With black ink
- No restrictions on the form of the images
- Cannot read images
Voice and other sounds.
Principles “Time machine”—simulate the future Use what you build - Good for text, pictures, printing, sound, email
- Bad for spreadsheets, databases
Personal machine - “People are fast, machines are slow”
- Performance is predictable
No grand plan for the system: integration - Not enough experience, cycles or memory
- Open OS, world-swap
- Exception: Smalltalk
Alto Hardware 0.3 MIPS 128 KB RAM 2.5 MB disk 3 Mbit Ethernet $12,000 to make
Alto Block Diagram
Hardware Moore’s law: live in the future if you can Price X CPU RAM Disk Net 1974: Alto $40k 1 0.3 0.1 2.5 .05 1984: Mac $3k 1 1 0.5 1.5 .03 1995: PC $3k 100 50 16 300 .1 2006: PC $1k 10000 2000 1000 300G 100
Hardware Comparison
Key Ideas For Hardware KISS - Had to be cheap enough to build lots of them
Bitmap display - Display anything – like paper
Programmable at all levels - Could change the instruction set and add new operations easily
Flexible and powerful input-output - Ethernet and Laser Printer controllers were add-ins
Distributed system - Connect many systems together with Ethernet
Alto In Use
Alto Awaiting Restoration
Ethernet CSMA/CD - Based on Aloha
- Collision detect
- Exp. Backoff
3 Mbits/sec Shared by 50 Altos Repeaters Much later, switches
Laser Printers Marriage of Xerography and Computing EARS was the first (1974) print server - Ethernet
- Alto
- Research Character Generator
- Scanning Laser Output Terminal
1 copy/second, 500 dots/inch Lower-cost and color versions developed later - Dover: 300 dpi, small Alto interface. 100 copies
Xerox understood it, built a successful business
SLOT Printer, 1972
The software Programming Servers User interface Applications Software is “thought-stuff”
Programming: OS, languages Main problem: live with - .1 MIPS, 128 KB RAM, 5 MB disk
OS: files, programs, network, command line - Open: get rid of any parts you don’t need
- World-swap to change environments
Languages - BCPL: father of C
- Mesa
- Smalltalk
Servers Network: Ethernet and Pup - First internet: Ethernet, Arpanet, phone lines, ...
Printing - 3 generations of laser printer hardware
- 3 generations of imagers: Ears, Press, Interpress
Files - “Interim” file system
- Research file systems
Email - Tenex Arpanet email
- Grapevine distributed naming and email
User interfaces
Smalltalk Complete system - OO language
- Integrated edit/debug
- Windows
- BitBlt
Bravo First WYSIWYG editor Prototype for MS Word Initial ideas - Piece table for document
- Cache line bit maps
Later - Fonts and layout
- High-quality printing
- Styles
Modeless UI from Gypsy
User interfaces Windows - Smalltalk pioneered overlapping windows
- Other software used tiled windows
Views—compute what you see
Laurel Email Header Pane
Laurel/Grapevine Distributed email system - Multiple servers
- Names, mailboxes
- Eventual consistency
3-pane window - Headers
- Message in
- Message out
User interfaces Windows - Smalltalk pioneered overlapping windows
- Other software used tiled windows
Views—compute what you see - Smalltalk browser
- Bravo multiple document views
- Laurel email folders
Menus - Markup had pop-up menus
- Smalltalk had the first icons
Markup’s Popup Menu
User interfaces: Displaying things Images - Bit-maps (as in Paint and Photoshop)
- Object graphics (as in MacDraw and Illustrator)
Fonts - Spline outlines for scalable fonts
- Screen versions hand-drawn—hinting much later
BitBlt - Computing with rectangular bitmaps
Markup Pure bit-map editing - Arbitrary images
- Low resolution
Popup menu
Draw
SIL for Logic Drawings
Cedar
Applications Writing: Bravo Microsoft Word Drawing - Markup Paint programs
- Draw MacDraw, Illustrator, Powerpoint, etc.
- Sil CAD programs
Email: Laurel mh, Eudora, Outlook, etc.
What the Alto system was like Just like today’s personal computing world - Writing, drawing, music, networks, printing, email
Except
Boca Raton—1976 Big show-and-tell for Xerox execs - Lots of Altos
- Ethernet
- Laser printers
- The apps you’ve seen
Goal: Get Xerox to make products Result: Systems Development Division - Star office system
- Limited sales of Alto office systems
What Xerox did with the Alto Electronic printing—many billions of dollars Xerox Star—Office system Fumbled the future? - Yes, but the real story is more interesting
“It’s easier to get a venture capitalist to give you money than to persuade the management of a large, successful company to try something new.” —Gordon Moore
Xerox Products: Printing 9700—2 pages/sec computer printer - Based on Xerox 9200 copier
- Hence sheet fed, good paper handling
- Hence blue laser
- “Character generator” based on PARC RCG
- Competition: IBM laser printer
Low end printers - First for Star—8000 print server
- Later OEMed, but too expensive
Interpress—ancestor of Postscript
Xerox Products: Star Office System Star, shipped 1981 (same as IBM PC) - Ran on Dandelion processor
Built on Mesa and Pilot Highly integrated - Editing, spreadsheet, filing, printing
Best office system for at least 10 years - Roughly = 1995 MS Windows /Office
- Didn’t sell—too expensive, closed
- $20-25k/workstation in total; 25,000 sold
- Apple Lisa in 1982 failed for the same reasons
Irony: researchers wanted a much simpler product
What Went Wrong? Printing - Xerox focus on high end copiers and printers
- Target existing markets: computer printing
- Office printing ignored. Apple, HP won this in 1985
Star Office System - Engineers had a vision, and achieved it
- A wonderful system: 10 years ahead of its time
- Too expensive, inflexible
- Overwhelmed by IBM PC wave
- Researchers pushed for something more like Alto
What Others Did with the Alto
Today Today’s PC is about 10,000 X an Alto Where did all the resources go? - Visual fidelity and elegance
- Integration
- Backward compatibility
- Scale—books, not just memos
- Time to market
- Response time
Did we foresee it?
Tomorrow “The best way to predict the future is to invent it.” Are computers boring now? Hardly! Computers are good for three things: - 1955: Simulation
- 1980: Communication
- 2005: Embodiment—interact with the physical world
The best is yet to come—see research.microsoft.com/gray - Robots
- Computers that see, hear, talk, understand
- Information at your fingertips
Dostları ilə paylaş: |