Glossary of the key notions in Bionics and beyond
Bandwidth → The quantative measure of the range over which the spectrum is concentrated is called the bandwidth of signal Base
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Bandwidth → The quantative measure of the range over which the spectrum is concentrated is called the bandwidth of signal Base → A ~ is a chemical species or molecular entity having an available pair of electrons capable of forming a covalent bond with a hydron (proton) (see Brønsted base) or with the vacant orbital of some other species (see Lewis base). Base stations → A base station is what links mobile phones (or other other wireless device) to a wireless carrier’s network. Baseline → The point from which deviations are measured. In a signal measure like % signal change, the baseline value is the answer to, “Percent signal change from what?” It’s the zero point on a % signal change plot. Basilar membrane → The ~ is the part of cochlea which separates two fluid paths, the scala media and scala tympani and it is also the base of the hair cells. Basis function → A ~ is an element of a particular basis for a function space. Linear combinations of basis functions can be used to construct arbitrary functions in that function space. Basis set → A ~ is a set of functions used to create the molecular orbitals, which are expanded as a linear combination of such functions with the weights or coefficients to be determined. Usually these functions are atomic orbitals, in that they are centered on atoms. Otherwise, the functions are centered on bonds or lone pairs. Pairs of functions centered in the two lobes of a p orbital have also been used. Additionally, basis sets composed of sets of plane waves down to a cutoff wavelength are often used, especially in calculations involving systems with periodic boundary conditions. Basket cell → A GABAergic interneuron-type, the axon of which forms basket-like network around the cell soma and proximal dendrites. Bathochromic shift → ~ is a shift of a spectral band to lower frequencies (longer wavelengths) owing to the influence of substitution or a change in environment. Bathtub model → It describes solids as big potential wells, with the potential inside the metal being 0 and it rising abruptly at the surface confining the condution electrons. Battery → A ~ is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Bayesian decision → Optimal decision, which is performed by using the likelyhood function BCD code → The basic principle of BCD code (Binary Coded Decimal) is that the number written in the decimal numeral system is coded in binary code, and then the resulting number sequences are written next to each other. BCM rule → The ~ proposes a sliding threshold for Long-term potentiation or Long-term depression induction and states that synaptic plasticity is stabilized by a dynamic adaptation of the time-averaged postsynaptic activity. According to the BCM rule reducing the postsynaptic activity decreases the LTP threshold and increases the LTD threshold. The opposite applies to the increase in postsynaptic activity. Bell’s law → This “law” describes how computer classes form, evolve and may eventually die out. Bereitscahftspotential → Negative going slow potential change that can be recorded on the scalp above the motor cortex before self-paced movements. It is reflecting the preparation for the execution of the movement. Other name is readiness potential Berger-rhythm → Another term for the alpha rhythm (8-13 Hz) which was discovered by Hans Berger (1873-1941), the inventor of the electroencephalogram (EEG). The ~ appears in a relaxed, but alert state, when the eyes are closed. It disappears when counting or other mental activities are performed. Alpha waves can be recorded with the best quality from the occipital region of the brain. Beta activity → EEG rhythm with low amplitude in the frequency band of 14-30 Hz. Beta value/weight → Also called parameter weights, parameter values, etc. This is the value of the parameter estimated for a given effect / column in the design matrix. Bias-variance dilemma → The dilemma between the size of the training set and the size of the neural network. How to set the size of the training set which strike a good balance between the bias and variance BIBO stability → A system is Bounded Input Bounded Output stabile if for every bounded input signal, the system responds with a bounded output signal Bicuculline → An antagonist of the GABA-A receptor, which is also capable of blocking calcium activated potassium channels. Bifurcation → Qualitative change of the phase portrait Big Bang → The ~ model or theory is the prevailing cosmological theory of the early development of the universe. Bimetallic electricity → A phenomenon discovered by Alessondo Volta (1745-1827) where two different metals found in a wet medium produce electric current Binary code → The rule that transforms into binary numerical representation is called ~. Binary edge template → A and B operators for detecting edges on a binary image Binding site → A particular place of a protein where a ligand can bind. Biochemistry → A branch of science studying the chemical transformations in living organisms Biocompatibility → Implantable medical device do not elicit any undesirable local or systemic effects in the human body Biocytin → An amide compound used for cell tracing. Bioinformatics → Application of information technology in life sciences.Generally, ~ means the computer-based analysis of large biological data sets. Biological membranes → Structures bounding cells and cell compartments of organisms. They are mainly constituted by lipids and proteins. Biomarker → A characteristic that is objectively measured and evaluated as an indicator of normal biological processes, pathogenic processes or pharmacologic response to a therapeutic intervention Bionano → Where biotech and nanotech intersect Biopotential → An electric quantity (voltage or current or field strength), caused by chemical reactions of charged ions in the living tissue Biosensor (plasmonic) → The first ~ made from plasmonic nanohole arrays exploits “extraordinary optical transmission”, can detect live viruses in a biological solution. Biostability → Implanted material should be stable and must be able to withstand attack from a harsh ionic body environment. Biotechnology → ~ is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and bioprocesses in engineering, technology, medicine and other fields requiring bioproducts. Biotechnology also utilizes these products for manufacturing purpose. Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. Bipennate muscle → Muscle fibres are on both sides of the central tendon (rectus femoris in the lower limb) Bipolar cell → A type of neuron, which has two processes (extensions) originating at the opposite poles of the cell body. Bipolar montage → Recording EEG with series of pair of active electrodes located on the scalp. Bipolar stimulation → The active and reference electrode are placed close to each other, they form an anode-cathode pair. Bipolar transistor → A semiconductor crystal containing two P-N transitions. The two transitions are created when an n-type crystal is contaminated to p-type on two sides, or the othe rway round. Bistability → Refers to systems with two stable states Bit → ~ is the information, but it is also one of the the basic units of the length of coded communication. Symbol: b. Possible values: 0 (false) or 1 (true). Blackbody → A ~ is an idealized physical body that absorbs all incident electromagnetic radiation. The object appears black, since it does not reflect or emit any visible light. Blackbody radiation → Because of its perfect absorptivity at all wavelengths, a blackbody is also the best possible emitter of thermal radiation, which it radiates incandescently in a characteristic, continuous spectrum that depends on the body’s temperature. The radiated energy can be considered to be produced by standing wave or resonant modes of a cavity which is radiating. Blind equalization → Equalization without training sequence Blind spot → Where the optic nerve escapes the eyeball (no cones, no rods) Bloch → Felix Bloch (1905–1983) was a Swiss-Amerikan physicist (Nobel Prize in 1952). Bloch function → If a particle (usually, an electron) is placed in a periodic potential, the Bloch’s theorem states that the eigenfunction may be written as the product of a plane wave envelope function and a periodic function (periodic Bloch function) that has the same periodicity as the potential. Block fMRI design → In a block design, two or more conditions are alternated in blocks. Each block will have a duration of a certain number of fMRI scans and within each block only one condition is presented. By making the conditions differ in only the cognitive process of interest, the fMRI signal that differentiates the conditions should represent this cognitive process of interest. Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) contrast → The difference in signal on T2*-weighted images as a function of the amount of deoxygenated haemoglobin. BLOSUM matrix → Based on an implicit evolutionary model and uses the scores of local similarity of sections in the BLOCKS database Bode-diagram → A ~ is a graph of the transfer function of a linear, time-invariant system versus frequency, plotted with a log-frequency axis, to show the system’s frequency response. Bohr → Niels Henrik David Bohr (1885–1962) was a Danish physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum mechanics (Nobel Prize in 1922). Bohr’s model → The ~ depicts the atom as a small, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons that travel in circular orbits around the nucleus - similar in structure to the solar system, but with electrostatic forces providing attraction, rather than gravity. BOLD response → Blood-oxygen-level dependence (BOLD) is the MRI contrast of blood deoxyhemoglobin. Boltzmann → Ludwig Eduard Boltzmann (1844–1906) was an Austrian physicist famous for his founding contributions in the fields of statistical mechanics and statistical thermodynamics. He was one of the most important advocates for atomic theory at a time when that scientific model was still highly controversial. Boltzmann constant → The Boltzmann constant is the physical constant relating energy at the individual particle level with temperature observed at the collective or bulk level. It is the gas constant divided by the Avogadro constant. Bonding molecular orbital → The ~ is the molecular orbital whose occupation by electrons increases the total bonding (usually, lowers the total energy) of a molecule. Generally, the energy level of a bonding MO lies lower than the average of the valence orbitals of the atoms constituting the molecule. Bone anchored hearing apparatus → The ~ apparatus is a hearing aid based on bone conduction, it transmits sound waves by direct conduction through bone to the inner ear. Bonferroni correction → In statistics, the ~ is a method used to address the problem of multiple comparisons. It was developed by Italian mathematician Carlo Emilio Bonferroni. Boolean functions → ~ are dependent logical variable(s) assigned to independent logical variables. Bootstrapping → A statistical method used when a distribution needs to be tested without knowing much about its true underlying variance, mean or anything. The skeleton of the method is essentially to build up a picture of the possible space of the distribution by re-shuffling the elements it’s made up of to form new, random distributions. Born–Oppenheimer (BO) approximation → Representation of the complete wavefunction as a product of an electronic and a nuclear part, where the two wave-functions may be determined separately by solving two different Schroedinger equations. The validity of the Born–Oppenheimer approximation is founded on the fact that the ratio of electronic to nuclear mass is sufficiently small and the nuclei, as compared to the rapidly moving electrons, appear to be fixed. Bose → Satyendra Nath Bose (Shottendronath Boshū, 1894–1974) was a Bengali mathematician and physicist. Bose-Einstein statistics → ~ determines the statistical distribution of identical indistinguishable bosons over the energy states in thermal equilibrium. It was introduced for photons, later generalized to atoms. Boson → Bosons are subatomic particles that obey Bose–Einstein statistics. Several bosons can occupy the same quantum state. Bosons are often force carrier particles. Particles with integer spin are bosons. The word boson derives from the name of Satyendra Nath Bose. Bound electron → Bound electrons are the electrons locked in orbit of the atom which are held in orbit by its attraction to the positive charge of the proton(s) in the nucleus. Boundary cell (CNN) → ~ are the non regular cells on the boundary of the array are called boundary cells of the CNN Boundary conditions → The set of conditions specified for behavior of the solution to a set of differential equations at the boundary of its domain. In a numerical simulation, it is impossible and unnecessary to simulate the whole universe. Generally we choose a region of interest in which we conduct a simulation. The interesting region has a certain boundary with the surrounding environment. Numerical simulations also have to consider the physical processes in the boundary region. In most cases, the boundary conditions are very important for the simulation region’s physical processes. Different boundary conditions may cause quite different simulation results. Improper sets of boundary conditions may introduce nonphysical influences on the simulation system, Boundary conditions (CNN) → The ~ are to specify the values of the virtual cells. The CNN equation is not completely defined for cells whose sphere of influence extends outside of the boundary of the array (boundary cells). The three most commonly chosen ~ are: (1) fixed ~, (2) zero flux ~, (3) periodic ~. Bounded input → A property for a signal meaning it has bounds in it’s codomain Brain mapping → ~ or quantitative electroencephalography (EEG) uses to create topographic color-coded maps aquired from EEG data. Brain-Computer Inerface (BCI) → BCI is a direct communication pathway between a brain and an external device. BCIs are often aimed at assisting, augmenting or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. BrainGate → Brain implant system, which was designed to help those who have lost control of their limbs, or other bodily functions, such as patients with ALS or spinal cord injury. The 96 site electrode array, which is implanted into the brain, records brain activity in the patient and converts the intention of the user into computer commands. Brainstem → The caudal part of the brain, which comprises regulatory centres of vital autonomic functions i.e. respiration, blood pressure, the ascending sensory and descending motor pathways, and somatic, autonomic and sensory nuclei of the cranial nerves. Brainstem auditory evoked potential → Short latency auditory evoked potential the components of which are generated in the brain stem auditory structures. It is used for objective audiometry. Bra-ket notation → A standard notation for describing quantum states in the theory of quantum mechanics composed of angle brackets and vertical bars. The notation was introduced in 1930 by Paul Dirac. Branch-and-bound technique → During iteration the elimination of branches that are found useless even in case of most optimistic assumption Breakdown range → The range where the Zenner effect occurs. Bremsstrahlung → Electromagnetic radiation produced by the acceleration of a charged particle, such as an electron, when deflected by another charged particle, such as an atomic nucleus. Brewster → Sir David Brewster (1781–1868) was a Scottish physicist, mathematician, astronomer, inventor, writer and university principal. Brewster-angle → ~ / polarization angle is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized. Brillouin → Léon Brillouin (1889–1969) was a French physicist. Brillouin-zone → The first ~ (often called simply the Brillouin zone) is a uniquely defined primitive cell in reciprocal space. The boundaries of this cell are given by planes related to points on the reciprocal lattice. Broca’s area → ~~ is a region of the brain with functions linked to speech production. Broca’s area is now typically defined in terms of the pars opercularis and pars triangularis of the inferior frontal gyrus, represented in Brodmann’s cytoarchitectonic map as areas 44 and 45. Brønsted – Lowry acid base theory → A theory where acids are defined as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors Brown → Robert Brown (1773–1858) was a Scottish botanist who made important contributions to botany largely through his pioneering use of the microscope. His contributions include the discovery of the cell nucleus and cytoplasmic streaming; the first observation of Brownian motion Brownian motion → Brownian motion is the assumably random movement of particles suspended in a fluid (water or a gas) or the mathematical model used to describe such random movements. BSL → ~ collection of hand-, head-, body signs forming a sign language, developed for communicating with deaf people (invented by Thomas Braidwood, 1760) Buffer → A gate that does not make computation on signals, just recover its signal level and amplify. Bulk micromachining → The substrate is formed and etched Burst → Multiple action potentials in a short time frame, followed and preceded by a time interval of inactivity. Burst activity → Neuronal activity composed of action potential trains. Bus → A ~ is a subsystem that transfers data between computer components inside a computer or between computers.Each component connected to the ~ uses the same wires. Butterfly → The smallest computational unit of the fast fourier transform. Byte → 8 bits long series 6. C CA1 (area C1) → Abbreviation for Cornu ammonis area 1, a region of the hippocampus. CA3 (area C3) → Abbreviation for Cornu ammonis area 3, a region of the hippocampus. Cache memory → A ~ is a component that transparently stores data so that future requests for that data can be served faster Ca-dependent conductance → Conductance mediated by ion channels where the amount of activation is determined by the concentration of calcium ions near the channel. Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority (CIP) → ~ or CIP is the system which is used for prioritizing groups for the purpose of labeling configuration. It was named after Robert S. Cahn, Christopher Ingold and Vladimir Prelog. Priority is based on atomic number of the first atom of the group. The higher the atomic number, the higher the priority. If the first atoms in two groups are identical, the second atoms are considered. Calculus of variations → ~ is a field of mathematics that deals with extremizing functionals, as opposed to ordinary calculus which deals with functions. A functional is usually a mapping from a set of functions to the real numbers. Functionals are often formed as definite integrals involving unknown functions and their derivatives. The interest is in extremal functions that make the functional attain a maximum or minimum value – or stationary functions – those where the rate of change of the functional is precisely zero. Calibration → In order that an instrument or artefact should accurately indicate the value of the quantity, the instrument or artefact requires calibration. Calretinin (CR) → A calcium-binding protein expressed in a subset of interneurons of the cortex and hippocampus. Cannula → A tube that can be inserted into the body, often for the delivery or removal of fluid, or guiding another inserted object. Canonical ensemble → An ensemble, where the system can have different energy in the different microstates, and the probability of a given microstates is proportional to its energy as pi=exp(-Ei/kBT)/Z, where Z=∑exp(-Ei/kBT) is the partition function Canonical HRF → A model of an “average” HRF intended to describe the shape of a generic HRF; given this shape and the design matrix, an analysis package will look for signals in the fMRI data whose shape matches the canonical HRF. The basic features are a gradual rise up to a peak around six seconds, followed by a more gradual fall back to baseline. Some programs also model a slight undershoot. Canonical representation respect to Capacitance → The ability of a body to hold an electrical charge Capacitor → It is a device for storing electric charge. Capillary electrometer → A device invented by Gabriel Jonas Lippmann (1845-1921) used to measure small potential differences or currents. Carbocyclic compounds → ~ are cyclic compounds in which all of the ring members are carbon atoms. Carbohydrates → Aldehyde or ketone derivatives of polyhydric alcohols Carbonic acid derivatives → One or more hydroxy group(s) of carbonic acids replacement by an amino group, sulfanyl group or similar groups. Carboxylic acids → ~ are oxoacids having the structure RC(=O)OH. The term is used as a suffix in systematic name formation to denote the –C(=O)OH group including its carbon atom. Cardiac pacing → is the repetitive delivery of very low electrical current to the heart to initiate and maintain cardiac rhythm. Carnitine → 4-N-trimethyl-3-hydroxybutyrate that participates in the transfer of fatty acyl-CoA across the inner mitochondrial membrane Carriers → Transporter membrane proteins as channels but they are open only toward the one side. Carry bit → This bit is set by arithmetic instructions as a carry bit or as a no-borrow bit. It is also affected by the rotate instructions. 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