In protestant theological institutions: a critical appraisal of contextual challenges in kerala, india jessy jaison b b s., M d
APPENDIX-4 List of Theological Institutions in Kerala 295
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APPENDIX-4 List of Theological Institutions in Kerala 295INTRODUCTIONTheological education for women in a culture that is predominantly patriarchal has a unique set of challenges to face, challenges that are habitually seen and interpreted as ‘normal’. This research is an intensive, empirical inquiry into the cultural and ecclesiastical challenges faced by the women student constituency in theological seminaries in Kerala. The focal search is to identify the challenges; the potential causes are then investigated to subsequently make recommendations as to how seminaries should go about addressing these challenges. A basic assumption that led to this research enquiry was that women experience various contextual challenges in and after their time in seminaries to which seminaries do not seem to be adequately responding. However, there were various conceptual and practical underpinnings to the research question, which required specific attention in the primary research. Distinctive features of the context and culture of Kerala had a particular impact on this. For instance, the research had to test the presumptions such as: women students face cultural challenges because the social status of women is lower than men in practice; that to some extent women are not as welcome in the ministry of the church as men; and, that there are crucial challenges in ministry for them. The study held that if the purposes and practices of theological education are not evaluated or reflected on in the light of these challenges, training cannot reach its fullest potential in the transformation of women. The research essentially adhered to the view that seminaries should not be ‘slaves’ to culture but rather agents liberating people from damaging cultural practices. In addition, seminaries need to make their theological vision about the ministry of women clear so that programmes can be defined well. If churches tend to conserve oppressive attitudes and practices, seminaries should consciously educate for change. With these ideological underpinnings, the research focused specifically on the academic and practical objectives as described below. The research aimed to identify the issues faced by women seminarians by listening to women and men and uncovering the hidden power structures of theological education. It strived to understand the ecclesiastical challenges and to find how seminaries respond. Further, there was an intention to identify the theological positions seminaries hold about women and their ministry in the context of Kerala. Among the objectives was also the plan to relate the study both to the debates on the topic in the world today and to the dimensions of general education and cultural change, thereby developing a theoretical model with practical recommendations to assist seminaries in addressing the deeper issues faced by women. After analysing the voices of concerns in women’s theological education around the world-most of which emerged from the US, in the first chapter, the study goes on to discuss the specific Indian and then Kerala contexts, with emphases on historical, educational, cultural and theological elements related to the topic. This is followed by a general account of feminism, cultural hermeneutics and the Bible in the third chapter to locate the topic within its appropriate philosophical framework. The fourth chapter exclusively deals with research methodology while the fifth reaches the major findings of the field research through a detailed analysis and interpretation of the empirical data. The sixth chapter makes the final analysis of the case by taking into account the cultural, biblical, theological, feminist, educational and organizational factors involved, which leads the study to the presentation of a new theological-cultural hermeneutic as a theoretically and practically tangible explanation to the issue addressed. Addressing women’s issues and undertaking an empirical research in a cultural milieu that is not favourable to the very term ‘feminism’ and all information essentially associated with it has been a major academic challenge of the research. However, according due recognition to the contributions of feminist epistemological and theological contributions, the study opted for an inclusive approach as a practical requirement to help out in the gathering of concrete empirical data.This work claims originality in a variety of aspects. It was an integrated appraisal of the issues and prospects of women training in theological education, which has not been identified by seminaries not only in Kerala but also in the rest of India. Thus, this endeavour in the patriarchal cultural setting in Kerala, where such a discussion has not been encouraged was distinctly innovative. The study also evaluated the relevant theological and biblical discussions on women’s ministry in the given context and critically examined the practice of seminaries in terms of training for women, in order to make specific recommendations for Kerala and similar situations elsewhere. Its originality also involved the application of a socially integrating research methodology and the equilibrium maintained by listening to both men and women who represented life in seminaries and churches. Moreover, the balanced cultural hermeneutical model explored through the study will serve as a practically worthwhile resource to deal with similar issues, irrespective of contextual diversities. The preliminary review of literature was a rather straightforward content analysis of information on women’s theological training and the challenges involved in the world today. This section also recognized the contribution of feminist critique which deconstructs the power assumptions inherent in theological education. The field data prompted the discussion to turn from superficial issues in training to culturally significant issues such as marriage and the social security of girls, and to engage with them more intensively. As a consequence, and based on the empirical data gathered, the study made a noticeable shift to the analysis of the role of culture and theology in the latter stage of the thesis. This was based on the conviction that exterior resolutions cannot answer the concealed issues women face in theological training. For a lasting and inclusive contribution, it was inevitable for the research to deepen the analysis into a practical theological hermeneutic that could effectively correspond with situations where similar issues are pertinent. CHAPTER 1: WOMEN IN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARIES – A LITERATURE REVIEW RAISING PROSPECTS AND CONCERNS With or without the welcome of society or churches, women have arrived and made their presence perceptible in theological education all over the world. There are concerns, criticisms, hopes and challenges for women in ministry, but the number of women choosing theological education is steadily increasing. The study depends largely on the written resources from the US context, where the largest debate on the issue has been held since 1970, while information from other contexts is also added to enhance cohesiveness. My subject is influenced by a variety of disparate issues and sources and so this section is necessarily a broad introduction to a number of different areas of the literature that I would later rely on and develop. In this chapter, we will therefore look at;
Data is presented in this review of literature in an analytical and explanatory manner through a content analysis of the various topics on women’s concerns in theological education, out of which the central insights for the primary research tools were developed. Following are three texts that deal uniquely with the concerns in the theological education of women. 1.1 Foundational Textual Resources ‘Your Daughters Shall Prophesy: Feminist Alternatives in Theological Education’1 was the result of a consultation on seven programmes for women and was written up by nineteen participants who have experienced theological education and its clerical paradigm in its elite form throughout the US. The aim was institutional change towards a more holistic and inclusive approach to theological education. Methods included examining the assumptions, identifying the central issues, developing alternatives, thus moving towards change. Its approach was a political one in the sense that it intended to penetrate existing systems and to advocate change in the power structures for equality. Its contribution to holistic learning is taken with great commendation while the radical standpoint towards equality and power positions are deemed not currently relevant in the context of the research and this will be explained later. ‘God’s Fierce Whimsy: Christian Feminism and Theological Education’2 was the contribution of seven Christian women from black, Hispanic, and white traditions. It was an outcry for justice where the forces of male gender superiority, homophobia, white supremacy and economic injustice prevailed. It displayed a fierce intensity that was the result of broken lives. The aim was to bring about awareness that theological schools were to accord deep respect to women’s lives, work and faith; it was not a thorough exploration of the pedagogical possibilities or curricular development. The method followed was a sharing of experiences. It identified its task as a struggle for justice and a wholesome liberation through praxis-oriented education. This text intensely desired to see dialogues on women’s concerns promoted. There are statements like “we are interested in reaching any people interested in theological education. Whether you agree with much of what we propose is not important to us. The issue between us and our readers… is whether dialogue is possible between us.”3 ‘Saving Work: Feminist Practices in Theological Education,’4 had the concern to identify and reflect on feminist practices in theological education. Its vision of ‘feminist liberationist Christianity within theological education’5 was assessed as ‘still utopian, that is the speaking of largely unrealized possibilities.’6 Redefining the feminist way of thinking about theological education, Chopp listed three points for consideration: the pedagogical styles, cultural problematics and the symbolic patterns of religion and culture7 and arrived at three potential outcomes:8 women assume the masculine position and learn to do it like a man; women totally reject this subject position and try to find preferred “feminine” ways and women become “bilingual” and learn the male system in order to transform it. These distinctively ‘women theological education oriented’ texts have been considered of much use for the conceptual framework of the background theory. However, the influx of women in theological education has been phenomenal and the changes it introduces are not a few. We will therefore, need to explore more on the topic from the literature. 1.2 Influx of Women into Seminaries “The entrance of women to study at seminaries or theological colleges is always remembered as an historical event,” said Deifelt.9 Since the 1970s, the admission of women for theological training has become more and more accepted…. This move, however, did not happen one day to the next. Rather, this shift reveals a long-standing tradition of struggle and commitment, a struggle that affected local congregations, church leadership and theological institutions. Primarily however, this shift reflects the changes that are happening in society at large.10 Chopp, who affirmed that one of the most significant changes in the last 20 years [from 1970s] is the presence of women in theological education, also said that feminist thinking developed in North American schools of theological education from 1970.11 There were many notable changes associated with this. First of all, the number of women in training began to be reflected in the number of women clergy: Since 1970 women in the US have become clergy in increasing numbers. According to the 1970 US census, approximately three percent of clergy were female. That number rose to approximately 10 percent by 1990 and is likely to climb further. Today over 30 percent of students enrolled in theological schools are female. In some denominations the figure is 50 percent or higher.12 Secondly, seminaries became aware of the prospect of a growth in the number of women faculty although there was no proportionate growth in their number. “The data on women faculty in ATS institutions show that the number of women faculty is still relatively low when compared with female student enrollments.”13 Thirdly, the wide-ranging concept of teaching and ministry as women comprehended it, called for reformation and revision in the methods of learning and teaching as will be discovered in the following sections. This phenomenon was not only true in the US, but in most parts of the world. Women have made their active presence known in seminaries in the US, Europe and Australia. The European Consultation on Theological Education held in 1980 in Herrnhut was attended by 72 persons including theological educators, students, church leaders, representatives of churches and ecumenical agencies where only nine were women and six of them were students. The statement said, “Women’s concerns could not be easily integrated into the agenda, apparently because feminist issues are not yet a self-evident concern for many involved in theological education despite the growing number of women enrolled in theological schools in Europe.”14 A panel discussion, however, was held, out of which recommendations were formulated to ensure the awareness of women’s issues in theological programmes in Europe. Graham Cheesman recorded that the First World War changed the role of women in the society and the church. He wrote: Women hoped for a greater role in society than before and this, coupled with an independence and freedom for women in society in the 1920s, translated itself into a greater willingness to consider some form of Christian work at home or overseas.15 Subsequently the Bible Schools in UK have been witnessing a tremendous increase in the numbers of female students. Cheesman stated that prior to the seminary tradition, the Bible school tradition had included a large number of women for mission training as the Faith Missions gave equal emphasis to men and women mission workers. Kirsten Nielsen observed that the number of women students at the theological faculties of Universities in Denmark exceeds more than half the student body. He also reasons that “if the tendency is continued, the majority of new theological graduates will be women, according to figures from the universities.”16 This is a trend that challenges the theological world today. According to Kendirim, “More evidence shows that serving as a pastor is gradually becoming a female preoccupation in the Folk Church, not just in Denmark, but all over Europe and Australia.”17 This involves a number of theoretical and practical concerns for the, up until recently, largely male-dominated enterprise of theological education and church ministry. It is helpful to look at the emphases of ATS (Association of Theological Schools in the US and Canada) on the issue. 1.3 Theological Education for Women in the US and the Firsthand Challenges The American schools started seminary training for women relatively early in comparison to the rest of the world. In addition, the US has produced a number of valuable written records in this regard. “Chicago Theological Seminary graduated the first woman Bachelor of Divinity in the US in 1907. Quakers and Unitarians had already accepted women in their pastorate.”18 Zikmund records that “the Hartford Theological Seminary was the first theological seminary, in 1889, to authorize the admission of women for theological study.”19 From 1970 onwards serious discussions on women’s issues in theological education were heard and reported in the context of North American Bible schools. Ziegler contends that during the 1970s, ATS became the voice of theological education in North America, a role that was a “clearly perceived purpose” of the Association.20 In the history of North America, the decade of 1980s witnessed a dramatic development of theological education as a profession: “By 1980, the engagement of women in the enterprise was firmly established. At the beginning of the decade, they constituted one-fifth (21%) of theological school enrolment. By the end of the decade, their numbers had increased to one-third (29.7%).”21 Women students made up just over 30 percent of the total enrolment in theological schools in 1993; almost triple the percentage in 1973, the first year that gender statistics were reported and a time when significant numbers of women began to enrol in seminaries.22 Now we will focus more closely on a few dimensions of training that underwent change, particularly in the US seminaries, with reference to women’s concerns in training. 1.3.1 A Broader Concept of Ministry Firstly, the broader perspectives on ministry made their own impact upon seminary education, forcing seminaries to address them. It is recorded: It was not until the 1980s that the thought of theological schools began to catch up with institutional practices of serving more diversified constituencies. The shift of emphasis from clerical to lay ministry rendered problematic the traditional conceptions of theological education and a substantially new rationale was needed for the enterprise.23 Women’s theological education raised various issues and prospects not only for seminaries but for churches as well. Vocational issues for women called for re-evaluation of the curriculum and the pedagogical methods. 1.3.2 A Plea for Equality Secondly, women as a minority group raised their voices for structural changes and the recognition of their rights, to which the seminaries were bound to respond. The Mud Flower stated, “Since the early 1970s the number of women students in US seminaries has increased 222%. During this period of time structural changes in seminaries have been minimal.”24 Chopp lamented over the situation, “Yet researchers in theological education have not yet paid attention to feminism as a resource for the critique and transformation of theological education.”25 According to Pacala: Although there were not comparable changes in the compositions of theological school facilities and administrations, the voices of women and minorities influenced the kinds of questions around which much of the re-examinations of theological education were conducted, and they represented new perspectives that contributed decisively to its outcome.26 ATS introduced significant moves in the status of women in theological education. The Association was held accountable to the same expectations concerning the role and participation of minorities and women that were required of schools by the accrediting standards… To ensure this outcome, ATS depended upon the Committee on Underrepresented Constituencies (URC) that was created in the 1970s as a committee directly responsible to the executive committee. Throughout the 1980s, the URC, composed almost entirely of women and minorities in theological education, planned and conducted special programs in support of underrepresented groups in theological education, monitored the Association’s implementation of accrediting standards pertaining to minorities and women, and served in an advisory capacity to the Executive Committee on ways and resources needed to strengthen minority participation in the Association.27 ATS’ Committee on Women in Theological Education that worked on the Affirmative Action Plan of the Biennial meeting in Atlanta, June 1974 drew heavily on the federal legislation relating to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Title XI of Education Amendments of 1972 to control discrimination on sex difference.28 The resolution said, Whereas both Jews and Christians affirm as the centre of their faith the God who is no respecter of persons but who created us all in the divine image and likeness, and equal in God’s sight; Whereas theological schools have a particularly heavy responsibility before God to deal equitably with all people in student admissions, placement, faculty/staff appointments, compensation and promotions; Whereas discriminatory practices have been repudiated by church and rabbinical councils and ruled illegal by government authorities; Whereas inclusive educational community is essential to the highest quality of theological education; and Whereas theological schools have a responsibility to maximize the participation of women in theological education29 Despite such decisive statements made more than three decades ago, theological colleges around the world still have a long way to go in their commitment to ‘maximize the participation of women in theological education’. 1.3.3 Higher Positions of Power Thirdly, there was a realization that women are beginning to occupy significant positions of responsibility in seminaries. Zikmund reports, The 211 accredited and non-accredited institutions of The Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada listed in the 1991 ATS directory show twenty-one women serving either as a President or a chief academic officer (Dean or Vice President for Academic Affairs, etc.) of a member school.30 Women have been thus slowly gaining attention in theological circles today. “According to the Association of Theological Schools’ Fact Book, women constitute about 10% of the persons now teaching in seminaries.”31 This can be seen alongside Chopp’s observation in 1995, “Many of us can remember when women, as a rule, were told not to ruin their careers in the academy and the church by being too connected to feminism or women concerns. Today in many schools women and men can study feminism and in some of our schools they are required to study feminism.”32 Wheeler evaluates, Today in theology there are several critical perspectives of which feminist theology is only one. But feminism is the critical perspective which is best represented in most theological seminaries. It is one that seminaries have the means to contend with, since the persons who propound it are now present in force in many institutions.33 The Cornwall Collective reports, “In the last six years [the last half of 1970s], women have become the fastest growing constituency in American theology schools.... The greatest increase in numbers has been among the women in programs leading to ordination.”34 We can sum up that the last three and a half decades have been eventful for theological seminaries, with women making their voices heard over theological and vocational issues. As this research gives focal attention to women ‘students,’ an evaluation of the emphasis on student-learning and welfare in some of the accrediting bodies will also contribute to the formulation of the background theory. 1.4 Student Orientation in Accrediting Policies Accrediting agencies place great emphasis on the learning environment, continual assessment of effectiveness and student-learning outcomes, which has many implications for women’s theological training. The focus on student-oriented, outcome-based education could be advocated to help the contexts that relegate women students to the periphery. The following section, therefore, is to benefit the study on this dimension. 1.4.1 Outcome Oriented Educational Strategy of ATS There have been a lot of discussions and research in ATS on the importance of learning outcomes, their construction in a culturally relevant manner and their continual evaluation and revision. These concerns call for a commitment to students in a theological education arena where women have now become significant. ATS identified three broad areas for the reappraisal of seminaries and divinity schools: First, the subject matter studied at school, the participants in theological education and the cultural context for seminary education and ministry.35 According to ATS’ Commission of Accrediting, each degree program standard requires that the school “shall be able to demonstrate the extent to which students have met the various goals of the degree program” and this expectation follows the general model of evaluation prescribed: “(1) the identification of desired goals or outcomes for an educational program, (2) a system of gathering quantitative or qualitative information related to the desired goals, (3) the assessment of the performance of the program, and (4) the establishment of revised goals or activities based on the assessment.”36 Effective assessment of learning thus entails an ongoing process in the life of the school rather than episodic occurrences. ATS affirms that the responsibility for determining the qualification for ordination and other non-ordained ministerial roles, and for ascertaining who has met them, lies with the church. At the same time its policy statement says, “ATS accreditation affirms the character of theological schools as educational institutions, no matter how intimately affiliated with or administered by church bodies.”37 This reveals the concern that both churches and theological schools be together responsible in the formation of students. ATS affirms the need for continual assessment of student learning. When student learning consistently falls below the desired learning outcomes, a search for the root causes begins. In evaluating the causes of ineffectiveness, the following types of questions are suggested:38
Theological education, therefore, has to be more than cognitive knowledge accumulation-as will be discovered in Shulman’s39 taxonomies of education- a key resource to help with the training of women in theological institutions. 1.4.2 Shulman’s Taxonomy in Educational Assessment Theological education aims at forming the students intellectually and affectively so that they can act on their beliefs and understanding. The famous educational taxonomy of Bloom40 involved synthesis, application and analysis41 but its cognitive domain needed significant revision as resulted in the work of Anderson and Krathwohl in 2001.42 While Bloom’s taxonomy somehow tended to look separately at the cognitive and affective domains, assessments in theological education would like to see them together particularly due to the cohesive emphasis on academic, personal and ministry formation. ATS, therefore, focuses more on Shulman’s six level “proxy indicators” that do not necessarily create a divide between the cognitive, affective and performance.43 The six-level indicators are:44 Engagement and Motivation; Knowledge and Understanding; Performance and Action; Reflection and Critique; Judgement and Design and Commitment and Identity. “While Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomies are widely known and used by instructional designers and measurement specialists, the taxonomy developed by Shulman might be more useful to seminary faculty and administrators….for him, learning involves all of one’s being.”45 His concepts of engagement and the table of learning that do not situate in a hierarchy have been gaining more approval in the assessment of theological education.46 Shulman believes that learning begins with engagement as conceived in Edgerton’s work on ‘pedagogies of engagement.’ Engagement may indicate a variety of approaches to providing for learning in terms of being cognitively engaged (I understand and want to know more), physiologically engaged (I am paying attention), emotionally engaged (I have a vested interest), or strategically engaged (I am in ‘in the action’). Evoking engagement in a learning object design is a challenge; each learner may have different ways they are engaged. Additionally, the learning experiences that are wrapped around, proceed, or follow a learning object interaction may effect the engagement of the learner.47 This emphasis on ‘praxis learning’ has crucial significance in any discussion on theological education of women. Following is a brief account of ICETE (International Council of Evangelical Theological Education). Between the data on ATS and ICETE, there is a gap of more than a couple of decades. There was also a shift between provision-based accreditation, which was common in the 1980s and the subsequent emphasis on objective-based accreditation. 1.4.3 International Council for Evangelical Theological Education (ICETE) ICETE, which functions as an umbrella organization, was earlier known as ICAA (International Council of Accrediting Agencies). ICETE is a global community, sponsored by eight continental/ regional networks of theological schools, to encourage international interaction and collaboration among all those concerned for the enhancement of evangelical theological education worldwide. ICETE was founded in 1980 and operates under the auspices of the World Evangelical Alliance (WEA).48 The Manifesto on the Renewal of Evangelical Theological Education took its form from ICAA meetings held at Chongoni, Malawi in 1981. Its attempt to identify the specific gaps in the achieving of a comprehensive model for quality theological education highlighted a variety of areas that were relevant in any context of theological education. It vividly expressed the concern over the tendency of theological institutions to function with no focus on the outcomes of education: “Traditional forms are being maintained only because they are traditional, and radical forms pursued only because they are radical and the formation of effective leadership for the church of Christ is seriously hindered.”49 Each of its stated concerns effectively corresponded to areas for measuring the effectiveness of theological education for women. The twelve key areas of action identified by the Manifesto are presented below in support of the background theory of the current study. These insights are central to an outcome-based, student-oriented training, with implications for women’s theological education:
The implications of each of these statements for the whole discussion of women in theological education are inferred especially throughout the final chapter of this thesis. 1.4.4 Learner-Oriented Theological Education in EEAA (European Evangelical Accrediting Association) Recent years have witnessed in Europe an awareness of the need for student-oriented education and considered evaluation of the learning outcomes of any educational programme. EEAA and its schools place much importance on student-focused education. The EEAA’s Membership Manual insists that theological school must have a programme that reflects a set of well-defined learning outcomes in its curriculum and learning activities. According to the Manual, “quality assurance shifts from quantitative evaluation to qualitative evaluation and as particular attention is given to the quality of the graduates of an institution and to the relevance of the educational programs, learning outcomes have become a central focus of school programmes.”51 This emphasis on contextual relevance is crucial to all educational programmes. The growing attentiveness in this area is reflected in the efforts of the Measuring and Recording Student Achievement Scoping Group in the UK.52 The group made fourteen recommendations of which the first three of particular relevance are listed below: Recommendation-1: there is a need for further investigation of classificatory systems for the appropriate and effective representation and communication of learning and achievement. Recommendation-2: a series of criteria for an effective system of representing and communicating student achievement should be identified and agreed by the higher education sector. Recommendation-3: since the current system of degree classification no longer provides a sufficient means of summarising student achievement, it should be reviewed. Only when the student achievements are stated and evaluated against the whole of the curriculum, can the programme claim effectiveness and relevance in a specific context. Theological education in the UK also identifies the phenomenon of ‘massification’53 that exerts long term influence on its entire structure. EEAA’s Manual contends, As in other areas of higher education, theological training has been subject to “massification” meaning that the student body not longer includes only those who come with a vocation to be professional ministers or missionaries, but many who are simply seeking personal development. This means that some programmes should be tailored for full-time ministers and others for those who do not see ministry as their career choice.54 The EEAA Manual had its focus on developing learning outcomes to ensure quality graduates and relevance to the context. It states, “In defining learning outcomes, each school must consider its own contexts, the needs it sees, its mission statement and the cultural, ecclesiastical and social context within which its graduates will minister.”55 This emphasis on context and broader concept of ministry has implications for the concerns surrounding the training of women. 1.4.5 EEAA’s Use of Dublin Descriptors in Educational Designing Theological education has to learn from effective patterns that have been discovered or developed in secular education. UK Higher Education places central emphasis on periodical assessment of the learning outcomes of educational institutions. EEAA had a focus on the Dublin Descriptors56 that are becoming accepted standards within the common framework of tertiary studies and are being adopted within the European higher education arena as models for the definition of qualifications or competences. The Descriptors highlight continual revision: “In order to maintain relevance, the board must define or re-evaluate the school’s learning outcomes every five years.”57 The reason behind this assertion would be the concept of ‘fitness for purpose’ in an educational system in which what achievement represents is defined. EEAA concluded that, in representing student learning and achievement, whether for formative or summative purposes, full consideration should be given to the significance of the process of learning (and the consequent development of capabilities such as enquiry, analysis, synthesis, problem solving, reflection and self-evaluation, criticality and creativity). These insights will need to have a significant impact on the growing women’s constituency in theological education everywhere. Aspirations and criticisms regarding the theological training of woman from the past few decades could be categorised in the eight foci discussed below. 1.5 Major Debates Relating to Women’s Theological Education Having examined a wide variety of issues that impinge on the role of women in theological education today in the literature, we now turn to some key debates. Documents and literature are yet to be published on the topic of women in theological education in many countries. The US is the major contributor (as noted earlier), and the UK and the rest of Europe are developing discussions on the topic. This study draws from the existing texts and articles but as a consequence is heavily weighted towards a Western context, where the most focused debates on ‘women students’ have taken place. The general contributions on women’s issues in the Asian contexts are recognized in the following chapter. Major issues identified from the literature review are as follows. Yüklə 1,36 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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