India and south east asia

Ancient India and South East Asia

Compiled by Sanjeev Nayyar May 1999

A couple of months ago, Indonesia's leader of the Opposition Megawati Sukarnoputri visited Bombay to collect an award from the Priyadarshan Academy at Cuffe Parade. Her name had the word Putri which is an Aryan word. While I was still trying to figure out how Indonesians had Aryan names, I read that the T.V. Serial Ramayana was very popular in Indonesia. There was a recent article in the papers that said the Muslims of Indonesia keep the Holy Gita in their homes. I kept on wondering about the reasons for Indian influence in Indonesia till I discovered Bhartiya Vidya Bhavan's books on Indian history.
As I started reading, I realized that most of South-East Asia was under Indian influence starting around 200 B.C.till around the fifteenth century. India's had trade, cultural and political relations with Burma, Thailand (Siam), Indonesia, Malay Peninsula and Cambodia. The essay is split into four periods namely -
1. 200 B.C. TO 400 A.D.

2. 400 A.D. TO 750 A.D.

3. 750 A.D. TO 1000 A.D.

4. 1000 A.D. TO FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D.

During each period I have written about the political situation in each state. Wherever required contributions made by Kings have been mentioned. Lastly India’s influence on the region's culture, art, literature has been described.

Early Trade and the beginning of Colonization chapter 1

To the ancient Indians, the Indo-Chinese peninsula was known as Suvarna-bhumi or Suvarna-dvipa, the land or island of gold. Indians traveled to the Far-East through the land or sea routes. The land route was through Bengal, Manipur, Assam, and Burma. Regarding the sea-routes, one could start from Tamluk in Midnapore, Bengal and proceed along the coasts of Bengal, Burma, Malay Peninsula, Java etc or start from Gopalpur ( Orissa ), Masulipatnam ( Madras ) and sail across the Bay of Bengal to the Far East. Trades induced by the mineral, metals wealth were the primary reasons for this intercourse between India and the Far East. Over time trade led to political and cultural relations. Trade relations may have begun around 200-300 B.C. if not earlier.

Early Colonies

Local traditions refer to the establishment of political authority by Indians over most of South-East Asia. According to Burmese chronicles, a prince of the Kapilavastu ( in Nepal ) marched into upper Burma and set himself King. The founding of Ligor in the Malaya Peninsula was supposed to be a descendant of Asoka. According to Cambodian annals an exiled prince of Indraprastha founded the kingdom of Cambodia. In A.D. 132 the King of Java, Devavarman sent an embassy to China. Around the first century A.D. Kaudinya founded a kingdom in Cambodia. Around 200 A.D. the kingdom passed on to his general Fan-che-man who conquered Thailand, parts of Malaysia. Sri-mara, ruler of Champa or Annan was first king about the second century A.D. The Hindu kings are known from Chinese sources, to have their names begin with Fan( Varman ). Fan Hiong, king

of Champa around 270 A.D. continued the policy of extending his kingdom at the cost of the Chinese.

Relations around 400 A.D. CH TWO

The Chinese piligrim Fa-hien reached Java-dipa (Java) in 414 A.D. Starting from Bengal they reached Ceylon in fourteen days. The details of his journey to Java are most exciting. 200 men left Ceylon in two boats. Their boat developed a leak and water started coming in. There was no knowing if it was East or West. Only the stars, sun, moon were their guides. In the night they knew not where they were going. After more than ninty days of uncertainty they reached Java. Inspite of such risks the Hindu kingdoms continued to grow and prosper.

Kambuja (Cambodia)

The kingdom of Fu-nan went through great political instability in the first half of the fourth century. Towards the end of the century, an Indian king Kaundinya, was elected king. He was a Brahmin and totally Brahmanised the country. Chinese annals talk of another great King,

Jayavarman who sent a number of embassies to China. There are Sanskrit inscriptions to prove the family' s existence. It was subsequently conquered by the rulers of Kambuja.
The kingdom of Kamboja was situated in North-Eastern Cambodia. According to legend it was founded by Kambu Svayambhuva, the King of Aryadesa (India). Near Laos was their family temple dedicated to Lord Shiva called Bhadresvara Siva. The last ruler of this family ruled till around 681 A.D.
Kambuja became a powerful kingdom that comprised of the whole of Cambodia,Cochin-China and parts of Laos. It continued its glorious career for nearly seven hundred years.

Champa

Fan Wen, a general became ruler in 336 A.D. In an attempt to expand his kingdom he was continuously at war with the Chinese but died in the process. His son, grandson carried the war forward with both sides claiming success. His grandson, Bhadra-varman was a scholar who studied

the Vedas. War with the Chinese continued who sacked the city of Champa in 446 A.D. and secured 1 lac pounds of pure gold. Subsequent kings paid a tribute to the Chinese, the last known king to have done so was around 757 A.D.

Burma & Siam (Thailand)

Although a continuous history of the kingdom is not available, there existed several Hinduised kingdoms according to Hiuen Tsang ie Srikshetra ( Lower Burma ), Dvaravati ( most of Siam ), Isanpura ( Kambuja ), Maha-Champa ( Champa ). Dvaravati was inhabited by Mons who adopted Hindu culture. They also lived in lower Burma called Ramannedesa. Also Hindu colonists settled in North Burma. There is a record of a Hindu dynasty called Sri-Dharmarajanuja-vamsa ruling Arakan between 600 to 1000 A.D. The famous Buddha image Mahamuni was the deity of Arakan.

Malay Peninsula

The geographical position of Malay peninsula made it the center of trade between India and the Far East. Takkola, modern day Takua Pa, was the first landing point for Indian traders. Ruins of shrines, images, Sanskrit inscriptions are found at Takua Pa. These prove that Hindu colonies existed all over the peninsula about the fourth or fifth century A.D. Details of Hindu colonists have been preserved in Chinese chronicles. The colonies were large in number and situated in places likeChumpon, Yala (near Patani), Malacca, the most imp being that of Nakhon Sri Dhannnarat ( Ligor). It was a great Buddhists colony which probably built the the great stupa of Nakon Sri Dhammarat. Available evidence suggests that the Bay of Bandon was the cradle of Further Eastern culture, where colonies of Brahmans survive who trace their descent from India.

Sumatra

The earliest Hindu kingdom known in Sumatra is Sri-Vijaya (Palembang), founded on or around the 4th century A.D. and rose to great prominence towards the close of the seventh century. In 684 A.D it was ruled by a Buddhist king Sri-Jayanaga. Sri-Vijaya fast grew into a naval and commercial power. The neighboring states made obeisance to him. The king had extended his supremacy over the Malaya peninsula as far as the Bay of Bandon, before 775 A.D. Several embassies were sent to China during the late seventh century too. All in all, it appeared to be a powerful kingdom.

Jawa

There were several Hindu kingdoms in Java. Two of these, called Cho-po and Ho-lo-tan by the Chinese sent regular embassies to China in the fifth century a.d. According to Chinese chronicles there were ten kingdoms in Java, the most imp one being Ho-Ling ( period 618-906). Ho-Ling is generally recognized as the Chinese form of Kalinga. The leading kingdom was named after the eastern kingdom of Kalinga. It may be inferred that this was due to a stream of immigration from Kalinga. This indicates close relations between Java and the Kalinga country. The pre-dominance of Indian civilization in Western Java is proved by the Sanskrit inscriptions of Purna-Varman.

Borneo

The Hindu colonization in Eastern Borneo is proved by seven Sanskrit inscriptions found at Muara Kaman on the Mahakam River, an important sea-port in those days. These kingdoms were established at the end of the fourth century a.d. if not before. The King Mula-varman performed a

sacrifice called Bahusuvarnaka ( large qty of gold ). A number of Brahamanical and Buddhists images were found along the Mahakam river.

Bali

The Hindus had colonized the island of Bali before the sixth century A.D. The King family's name was Kaundinya. He sent an envoy to China in A.D. 518. The Chinese give a detailed account of the splendors of the Court and there is hardly any doubt that in the sixth century, Bali was a rich & civilized Hindu Kingdom professing Buddhism.
Hindu Colonization of South East Asia

The most important remains of Hindu colonists are the Sanskrit inscriptions found all over Burma, Siam, Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatara, Borneo etc. A perusal of these scripts shows that the

language, literature, political, social institutions were greatly affected by India. The local people must have belonged to a primitive civilization and it was to the Indians to introduce a higher culture

amongst them.

These inscriptions written in flawless Sanskrit, show that the language was used in Court and society. We have reference to the Vedas, Puranas, and the prominent Brahmanical and Buddhists ideas associated along with them. This reached a climax in Burma where an attempt to create a New India was made. Outside Burma, we have important names like Amaravati, Gandhara, Kalinga, Kamboja, Gomati and probably Ganga.
The Chinese chronicles testify to the Indian influence in the region. In the city of Sri-Vijaya there were 1000 Buddhists monks. This was the earliest seat of the Mahamaya sect that was later to play an imp role in the whole of Suvarnadipa. There was evidence of these colonists maintaining links with India. Much to the ignorance and suprise of most Indians a New India was taking shape.

Relations between 750 to 1000 a.d. CH THREE

The outstanding fact of the history of South-East Asia in the eight century A.D. was the rise of the Sailendra Empire which comprised of Sumatra, Java, Malaya Peninsula and most of the other islands of the Indian archipelago. They put an end to the Sri-Vijaya kingdom in Malaya peninsula and occupied a large part of it. There is inadequate data to know the lineage of the Sailendras. One of the early kings is Rajadhiraja Vishnu.

More information is available about the wealth and grandeur of the empire. This is mainly derived from Arab writers. According to Ibn Khordadbah, the daily revenue was 200 mans of gold. According to Masudi, the kingdom produces all type of spices and aromatics and no other

sovereign gets as much wealth from the soil. Al-Biruni said the islands were abundant in gold which is why they were called Suvarna-dvipa.

Their Naval Supremacy enabled them to control the sea-borne trade between China and the West. Control over maritime trade contributed to the immense wealth of the King. The Chinese called the Sailendra empire as San-fo-tsi. The empire achieved the political unity of Malaysia for the first time.
The Sailendras were followers of the Mahayana form of Buddhism. Around the ninth century the king Balapurtadeva built a monastery at Nalanda. The Sailendras made memorials some of which like Barabudur have earned admiration of the world.

Kambuja

The mighty and exclusive kingdom of Bhava-varman split into a number of states in the 8th century a.d. namely Kambuja of the land and Kambuja of the water. The latter had a number of capitals like Sambhupura ( modern day Sambor), Aninditapura. Rulers of Aninditapura regarded themselves as

descendants of Kaundinya, the founder of the Hindu kingdom of Fu-nan. King Sanjaya of Java conquered Kambuja around 750 a.d.
But Kambuja revolted against foreign rule in the early ninth century under Jaya-varman II. The king spent his early days in Java and became ruler of Kambuja in 802 a.d. Not much is known about his background. He however, played an imp role in the history of Kambuja. He united it, put

it on the road to recovery and gave it stability. Even now he is regarded as one of its divine heroes. He is represented as the son of Lord Indra. The sacred sword of Kambuja which is used by its kings at the time of coronation is believed to be a relic of Jaya-varman II. The cult of Devaraja, instituted by him was the state religion for many centuries. He died in 854 a.d. The Arab writers bestow high praise on the Khmers as the kingdom was called.

According to Ibn Khordadbah " The Kings and peoples of India abstain from drinking wine but they do not consider adultery as an illegal act, with the sole exception of the Khmer King who forbids drinking and adultery." It is interesting to note that Khmer is included in India.

King Indra-varman succeeded Jaya-varman III and founded a new royal line. Indra-varman was a great builder and was succeeded by Yaso-varman who occupies a pride of place in the country's history. He founded a new capital city called Kambupuri, was a follower of Saivism, patronized

Buddhism, an ideal king whose border extended upto the frontier of China. He died about 900 a.d. There were various kings, the last being Jaya-varman being 1001

Champa

The Dynasty of Panduranga ( 757 to 869 a.d )

On the death of Rudra-varman II the throne was occupied by Prithvindra-varman to be succeeded by Satya-varman during whose reign Javan raiders burnt a temple and carried away an image of Lord Shiva. There were various kings who ruled subsequently upto 860 A.D.

The Bhrigu Dynasty ( 860 to 985 A.D.)

The first notable king was Indra-varman II. The name Bhrigu comes since according mythological account Bhrigu was sent to Champa by Lord Shiva himself. The king was a follower of Saivism but had leanings towards Buddhism also. During this period Champa was invaded by the King of

Kambuja. There were no major events during the period under rule.

Java

A powerful kingdom was founded in Central Java by King Sannaha in the first half of the eighth century A.D. His successor, Sanjaya, a great ruler founded the kingdom of Mataram which after a career of glory flourished in the sixteenth century as an imp principality under a Muslim sultan. Amongst the last kings was Dakshottama around 915 A.D the kingdom coming to an end about 928 A.D.

End of Hindu Civilization in Central Java

There have been many reasons given for the end of Hindu influence but the most probable one seems- Since the king of Mataram was forced to shift his capital to the east on a/c of the conquest of Central Java by the Sailendras the centre of glory & culture shifted to the east. It’s quite possible that volcanic eruptions, epidemics got people moving east. There is no doubt that Hindu civilization lost its hold on Central Java about the middle of the tenth century.

Eastern Java, however, continued to be under Indian influence for the next five hundred years.

Burma

The Hinduised Piyu kingdom with its capital at Srikshetra (Prome) was the most powerful in Burma during the following period. Buddhism was very popular with hundreds of monasteries existing. The rise of the powerful Thai kingdom known as Nan-chao or Mithila-Rashtra made the king invade and dominate Piyu ie upper Burma.
Little is known about its history after the ninth century. Soon a new tribe called Mrammas (Burmans) came into existence. They ruled as the dominant power in Burma from the eleventh century onwards with Pagan as their capital.
Effect of the Hindu civilization

The caste system was introduced but existed in a form that is not as rigid as it is in India. The castes did not tie people down to specific occupations. It is interesting to know that Kshatriyas were placed superior to Brahmans. The position of women was better than it was in India.

The Puranic religion had a strong hold on almost all people. Although the trio of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva were worshipped Shiva was the most popular. Trimurthi images were found in Java and Kambuja.
The study of Indian religious literature was a special feature of life. Vedas, Buddhists scriptures were referred to. Arrangements were made for daily recitation of the Mahabharat, Ramayana, and Puranas.
Buddhism was very popular esp in modern day Indonesia. Buddhists teachers from Bengal exerted considerable influence in Java and there existed close relations with the Pala kings of Bengal and Nalanda. The Sanskrit inscriptions of Kambuja throw great light on religious development. They prove the extent of Indian influence not only on living styles but spiritually too. There are several instances of Brahamanas being invited to Kambuja & recd with special honors eg Sarvajnamini. A large number of asramas existed all over Kambuja. They remind us of the ancient hermitages in India.
The earliest temples in Java are on the Dieng plateau. These are Brahamanical temples and are named after the heroes of the Mahabharata and are probably around the eight century A.D. The Prambanan valley consists of a large number of temples built around 775 A.D., the complex

of temples being called Chandi Sevu. Also there is the Lara-Jongrang group of temples. The most magnificent temple in Java is Barabudur. It must have been constructed the eighth century a.d.

Sanskrit inscriptions discovered in Kambuja, Champa, Java, Malay peninsula leave no doubt about the influence & impact of Sanskrit literature. The use of Sanskrit literature reached its zenith in Kambuja around the eighth, ninth centuries a.d. The form and content of inscriptions indicate a mastery over Sanskrit Kavya.
Relations between 1000 to 1300 A.D. Chapte 4
Decline of the Sailendra Empire

At the beginning of the eleventh century the empire was ruled by Sri Chudamani-varmadeva. There existed friendly relations between Sailendra Kings and the Cholas, Palas of Bengal. It is therefore suprising that a war broke out between the Cholas and the Sailendras. The war between

Rajendra Chola and the Sailendra king ended in the Chola king taking control parts of Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. The war happened around 1017 a.d. One of the main reasons for the war must have been the desire to control the rich volume of trade between India and modern day Indonesia, Malaysia. Given the geographical distance between the two kingdoms the Cholas found it difficult to retain control of their conquests. The Sailendras continued to rule and became powerful with time. Their names ended with the name varma-deva. One of their kings Chandrabhanu invaded Sri Lanka twice but was defeated both the times. Around this time two powerful kingdoms grew ie Thais and the kingdom of Malayu backed by Java. The Sailendras lost their eminent position with the conquest by Java about 1377 a.d. The annals of Keddah talks of seven rulers the last of who adopted Islam in 1474 a.d.
Decline of the Kambuja Empire

The death of Jaya-varman V in 1001 a.d. was followed by a war amongst various candidates till Suryavarman II came to the throne in 1010 a.d. The king adopted Buddhism along with worshipping Shiva. He died in 1049 a.d. The empire went through a rough patch till 1082 a.d. when

Suryavarman II brought the whole kingdom under his authority in 1113 a.d. Inspite of a disastrous war with Champa the empire grew in power. Suryavarman II constructed the world famous temple known as Angkor Vat which is regarded as one of the wonders of the world.
After some confusion the next great ruler was Jayavarman II. He defeated Champa. The religious foundations and public works undertaken by him are worth recalling. There is the temple of Ta Prohm where the king set up the image of his mother employing 66,235 persons in service of the

deities. There were 798 temples and 102 hospitals constructed. Of the 102 the site of 15 can be determined by means of inscriptions. Jayavarman II is the last of the great emperors of Kambuja in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

Kambuja remained a powerful kingdom till the end of the thirteenth century. When Kublai Khan the Mongol King conquered Champa and asked Kambuja demanding allegiance she had the courage to resist. The capital city was full of splendor and pomp but full of palace conspiracies

too. The growing power of the Thais who had conquered Siam under their king Ram Kamheng carried victorious to Lower Burma and to Kambuja. The Annamites conquered Champa in the fifteenth century. Caught between two strong powers the kingdom lost its prestige till it came under French protection in 1854 a.d.

Fall of Champa

The period 1000 a.d. to 1250 a.d is marked by wars with Annam, Kambuja. In 1256 a.d. the kingdom came under the rule of Indra-varman XI. His reign is memorable for the Mongol invasion. When Kublai Khan invited the king of Champa to pay homage he agreed and offered submission. Although the king submitted, his son Harijit refused to yield. The Mongol sent an army under Sagatu who inflicted great losses on the enemy but refused to yield. Reinforcements sent by the Mongol king did not result in victory. The Mongol troops declared war against Annam too but were decisively defeated by the Annamite emperor.

Harijit became king under the name Jaya Simha-varman IV. The king cleared his kingdom of the marks of Mongol invasion. Being infatuated with the daughter of the King of Annam he offerred two provinces as the price for marriage. After the king's death, there were frequent rebels by the people of the ceded provinces compelling the Annamite king to invade Champa and gain an easy victory. The kingdom, now became a part of Annam. Various kings did try and break the Annam stronghold over Champa but met with no success. I n 1522 one of them tried to free himself of Annamites control only to be caged. The last king of Champa unable to bear the compression took refuge in Kambuja in1822. Thus ended the glorious history of the Hindu kingdom of Champa. It became a part of Annam.

Java

The kingdom was hit by a great unknown catastrophe around 1000 a.d. to be saved by son-in-law of the king called Airlangga. By 1035 he had established his authority over the whole of Java. The king set about restoring the kingdom devastated earlier. After becoming an ascetic in 1042 he divided his kingdom between his two sons. The western kingdom became the more powerful with its capital at Kadiri. Amongst the rulers Jayavarsha, Kamesvara have been immortalized by great poets who flourished during the period. The kadiri period laid the foundations of the Javanese empire with a high degree of development of literature and art. The Kadiri dynasty ended around 1225 a.d. The end of the Kadiri dynasty led to the fading away of Hindu culture and purely Javanese elements came into prominence.
Amongst the new kings, Kritangara was the most powerful. He established rule over Bali, Pahang (Malay Peninsula), Malayu(Central Sumatra), Sunda(W.Java). Marco Polo describes Java as a prosperous kingdom in 1292 a.d. While the king was on a expedition to Sumatra the governor of

Kadiri marched towards the capital and captured it. In 1281 a.d. when Kublai Khan invited the king to pay homage to him, the king refused after which Khan sent a big military expedition to defeat him.He was supported by a king Vijaya. The king died after which Vijaya became the king of Java around 1293 a.d.with Majapahit as his capital. This became the nucleus of a mighty Hindu empire which continued till the late sixteenth century a.d.

Bali

The island of Bali has the unique distinction of being the only colony in the East that follows Hindu religion. From various inscriptions, it is known that the earliest king was Ugrasena in 915 a.d. Bali was conquered by Java towards the end of the tenth century a.d., probably regained independence in the twelfth century. The king in 1204 was Bhatara Paramwesvara ie before the island was recaptured by Java. The growing power of Majapahit referred to above tried to conquer Bali

and succeeded in 1343. Towards the close of the fifteenth century the king of Majapahit unable to stem the flow of Islam took refuge in Bali. He was followed by many Javanese who wanted to retain their culture. In 1911 the island fell into the hands of the Dutch. It is the last stronghold of the Indo-Javanese culture.

Burma

Popular tradition derives Burma from the Sanskritised word Brahma which probably is the Sanskritised form of the tribal name Mramma. The Mrammas form the principal element in the population of Burma which is a mixture of many people and tribes. They came from the their original homeland in Tibet and have ethnically connected with the Nagas, Kukis, Abors of

Eastern India. It is possible that they came into contact with Hindu culture on their way from Tibet to Burma.
The Burmese national era starts around 638 a.d. and is believed to commemorate the foundation of the Mramma empire in Pagan. It is only in the eleventh century that the outline of their history is known eg the inscriptions tell us that the king was Aniruddha in 1044 a.d. and the classical name for Pagan was Arimardanapura. Aniruddha adopted the Mon form of Hindu religion and united the whole of Burma. During the reign of Alaungsithu, Ceylonese Buddhism was introduced in Pagan in 1192 a.d.
In 1273 a.d, the Mongol Kublai Khan's forces defeated the Burmese army after which Burma broke up into petty principalities.

Siam

The beginnings of the Hindu colonization of Siam may be traced to 200 b.c.The northern part came under the influence of the Mons while the southern part was part of the Kambujan empire. It is only after the decline of the Kambujan empire in the thirteenth century that Siam became an independent political unit. Around this time there was a new wave of immigration from the North known as the Thais.

The Thais are perhaps a Mongolian tribe ethnically related to the Chinese and probably lived in Southern China. They migrated around the beginning of the Christian era and set up various principalities, the major ones being Yunnan and Tonkin( Annamites). The former came under

Hindu influence from an early period. Their country was known as Gandhara in India and Nan-chao by the Chinese. One part of the state had its capital at Mithila. Buddhism was brought from India around the eighth century.

The Thai kingdom repeatedly invaded China and defeated them in the middle of the seventh century. Peace was established in 884 a.d after the Gandhara king married a daughter of the Chinese emperor.
The Hinduised kingdom of Gandhara flourished till 1253 a.d when it was conquered by Mongol Kublai Khan. The Thias immigrated around the invasion. One branch, the Ahoms conquered Assam while the Shaans (Thais in Burma) conquered upper Burma, the last branch gradually conquered Laos and Siam.
The first Thai kingdom was that of Sukhodaya(Indraditya) around the thirteenth century. The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of his son Ram Kamheng- 1283 a.d. He conquered a number of Thai states in Siam, Hamsavati in lower Burma. His record gives a long list of public

utility works that he undertook- temples, lakes, parks,monastries etc. He introduced writing amongst his people. While he did not introduce the Thai script but it is derived from a form of the Khmer script of Kambuja. After various kings, in 1350 a.d. the king transferred his capital to a new city called Ayodhya (Ayuthia). The kingdom of Ayodhya was destroyed in 1767 a.d. when the capital was moved to Bangkok where a representative still occupies the throne. Siam is the anglicized name for the name Shyam.

Culture & Civilization

Religion

Saivism maintained the dominant position but Buddhism made headway in Kambuja. However, a degraded form of Mahayana known as Tantrayana took root in Java and Sumatra. As in Bengal tantrik ideas permeated Saivism here too. In modern Balinese theology Buddha is regarded as a younger brother of Siva and a similar Buddha-Siva cult existed in Java. It would appear that Buddhism was growing at the cost of Saivism around the thirteenth century till Burma, Cambodia, Siam became wholly Buddhists.

The caste system formed the basis of society, however, Brahman girls married Kshatriyas. Astronomy was very popular with women and men alike. With the weakening of the Indian link local elements began to assert themselves.
Literature

The study of Indian literature was widely prevalent but nowhere was it more popular than in Java. The Indo-Javanese literature passed through three distinct phases. Phase one was from 1000 a.d. to 1500 a.d. Its poetry follows rules of Sanskrit metre. The earliest specimen is a version of a Sanskrit work Amaramala. The most famous is Ramayana which was composed by Yogisvara in 1094 a.d. It is not a translation of the original text but shows the reunion of Ram with Sita in Ceylon. Next was the Mahabharata which follows the original epic but is a condensed version was written towards the beginning of the thirteenth century under the patronage of Airlangga. Amongst the various books written the greatest is Bharata-Yuddha in 1157 a.d.written during the reign of

Jayabhaya, king of Kadiri. Some works resembling the Puranas were also written although they cannot be traced to their Sanskrit original.
Art

In the domain of art, Kambuja stood above the rest. The Angkor Vat, built by Surya-Varman II between 1100 to 1145 a.d, dedicated to Lord Vishnu, is regarded as one of the wonders of the world. Another great monumental grandeur was the capital city Angkor Thom, built by

Jaya-Varman II. It is not neccessary to discuss the city layout in great detail.
In Java, great temples were built in eastern parts known as Chandi Kidal, Chandi Jago all built in the thirteenth century. Many temples were built in Champa but none of them merit attention. In Burma many temples were built but the greatest of them is the Ananda temple of Pagan built by Kyanzithha and is regarded as a masterpiece of Burmese architecture. In Siam the Indian influence is visible.
I have tried to give you a flavor of Indian influence in South-East Asia.Its quite possible that I have missed out some facts or misunderstood others.

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