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JEOD - Vol. 6, Issue 1 (2017)

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AT T R I B U T I O N   3 . 0

Editorial: Community-Based, Collaborative Solutions 

to Sustainable Economic Development in and around 

Biosphere Reserves

This is the introductory article to the JEOD Special Issue on “Community-Based, Collaborative 

Solutions to Sustainable Economic Development in and around Biosphere Reserves”. In introducing 

the topic, we make the case for joining the experience of practitioners and scholars in the writing 

of the issue articles. We outline an institutionalist approach to the study of sustainable development 

in UNESCO designated Biosphere Reserves (BRs) and highlight how this can help explaining the 

emergence of a variety of experiences from which practitioners can extract major lessons to solve 

common problems of collective action within BRs. The editorial concludes by presenting issues for 

further research.

BIOSPHERE RESERVES; SOCIAL CAPITAL; SOCIAL ENTERPRISE; COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT; 

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; OSTROM

COLIN CAMPBELL

Assist Social Capital CIC, Scotland (UK)

colin@social-capital.net

SILVIA SACCHETTI

Department of Sociology and Social Research, 

University of Trento (Italy)

silvia.sacchetti@unitn.it

ABSTRACT

AUTHOR


KEY-WORDS

JEL

 Classification: L31; M16; Q01; Q38 | DOI:  http://dx.doi.org/10.5947/jeod.2017.001

Volume 6, Issue 1 (2017) 1-9 | Published online 18 October 2017

Acknowledgments 

The authors wish to thank all the authors, and the anonymous reviewers for the insight they have brought with their 

comments. Our thanks also go to Barbara Franchini for final editorial advice and Michela Angeli for editing assistance. 



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1. Introduction

The issue is completely devoted to the topic of community-based, collaborative solutions to 

the sustainable development of Biosphere Reserves. In interactions with participants in academic 

and practitioner workshops on sustainable development and social economy organisations, it 

is quite striking to notice how many scholars and operators appreciate and apply cooperative, 

community-based frameworks to their work. The idea in the choice of contributions for this 

Special Issue was to join practice and theory, with the aim of starting a common reflection with 

practitioners, policy makers and academic researchers on issues that are often addressed without 

opening appropriate lines of communication between these spheres. 

The topic relates closely to the discussions on “Economics in and around Biosphere Reserves” 

chaired by one of the guest editors, Colin Campbell, at the 4th World Congress of Biosphere 

Reserves held in Lima, Peru in March 2016. The Lima conference set out a new vision for the Man 

and Biosphere (MAB) Programme, for the decade 2016-2025, which mainstreams UNESCO 

Biosphere Reserves as models for national/regional demonstration of sustainable development 

within national and global agendas for the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. 

Although cooperative, community-based approaches seem to be widespread these days, this 

has not always been the case. Despite recent popularity, the application of cooperative, community 

based frameworks to instances of social and natural justice is a relatively recent phenomenon. Only 

in the mid-1990s, a literature appeared that broadened conceptual tools that, until then, had been 

polarised between those who favoured state-led regulation and neo-liberal approaches centred on 

free market. The study of solutions to the management of natural resources took a radical turn after 

the work of Elinor Ostrom (1990), who identified the conditions under which a “third alternative” 

is possible. This alternative is based on the ability of individuals to cooperate and to self-organise to 

establish rules that everyone is asked to respect. 

Before these conceptual tools developed, in 1971 UNESCO launched the Man and the Biosphere 

(MAB) Programme (Ishwaran, Persic and Tri, 2008; Coetzer, Witkowski and Erasmus, 2014). 

Out of this framework emerged the concept for context-specific conservation (Ishwaran, Persic 

and Tri, 2008), as well as the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) (Ishwaran, 2009). 

The concept is considered as an international tool for cooperation related to nature conservation, 

interdisciplinary research and education as well as the basis for developing a sustainable long-term 

approach for improving the relationship between the environment and the people living within it 

(Ishwaran, Persic and Tri, 2008; Coetzer, Witkowski and Erasmus, 2014). 

In general, the Biosphere Reserve (BR) framework and concept have shifted over time from an initial 

prioritisation of conservation and research towards the idea of sustainable development where the BR 

fulfils three main functions: (i) conservation role; (ii) logistic support function; and (iii) development role 

(UNESCO, 1996; Ishwaran, Persic and Tri, 2008; Coetzer, Witkowski and Erasmus, 2014). 

More recently, the Madrid Action Plan (MAP) (UNESCO, 2008) emphasised the role of 

BRs as “training grounds” (Learning Laboratories - LLabs) to develop sustainable development 




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principles translated into local contexts whereby greater local participation and “social learning” 

are to be integrated (Reed and Massie, 2013) and shared across the World Network of Biosphere 

Reserves (Ishwaran, Persic and Tri, 2008). As Ishwaran, Persic and Tri advocated (2008, 6): “It is the 

authors’ expectation that the next 5–10 years of experimentation with biosphere reserves as learning 

laboratories for sustainable development will generate a significant pool of data, information and 

knowledge about local level practices that give context-specific expression to the global concept of 

the biosphere reserve”.

After about a decade from that statement, we hope that this Special Issue provides some initial 

indications on the experimental experiences enabled by the UNESCO MAB Programme, with the 

intent of highlighting the factors that made them more or less successful. 



2. The role of cooperative institutions

Biosphere Reserves are “commons” at all effects: access cannot be restricted and the use of 

one individual subtracts to the possibility of another individual to use the resource. Therefore, 

without a deep knowledge of their nature, and definition of appropriate principles for interaction, 

the resources produced by the common are overused to the detriment of each and every user. The 

danger called for by Hardin (1968) in his seminal piece The tragedy of the commons reinstates that 

resource overuse undermines the resilience of the common, which loses its qualities and ceases to be 

a resource for the community. 

In parallel, institutional economist and political scientists have long studied how shared 

understanding, cooperation and trust within communities of interests are the pre-conditions for 

the collective management of commons and their resilience. Specifically, Ostrom (1990) argued 

in favour of self-defined rules by which the community of users and beneficiaries understand the 

common advantages of cooperating, and share their sedimented knowledge to define and enforce 

shared rules for the use of common pool of resources. The scholarly work of Ostrom and colleagues 

argues against the use and imposition of top-down rules, disconnected from the customs and ability 

to find commonly beneficial solutions of interested parties. She, in fact, argues that participatory 

solutions are more promptly respected and enforced. 

The conceptual background provided by institutional theory points to one major challenge for 

policy makers and communities: to endogenously develop a model for the sustainable use of the 

resources produced by BRs. This implies creating the contextual features and the rules that best 

serve the development of socio-economic activities (such as sustainable tourism, forestry, waste 

management, housing, and welfare services) without compromising the ability of the BR system 

and its population to re-produce and thrive in the long run. 

As a reply to this challenge, more recently, Sacchetti and Campbell (2015) have identified 

(on this Journal) a framework for studying community development. The framework emphasises 

the role of social enterprise and public engagement in fostering a space of cooperative relations 




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amongst communities of interest, which can enhance common welfare. In parallel, the role of 

social enterprise and public engagement is central in the Social Enterprise & Biosphere (SEBR) 

Development Framework applied to BR development and launched by the social enterprise Assist 

Social Capital in 2013 (ASC, 2013). 

Overall, the social enterprise model is growing internationally and “[…] in recent decades the 

SE [social economy] has not only asserted its ability to make an effective contribution to solving the 

new social problems, it has also strengthened its position as a necessary institution for stable and 

sustainable economic growth, matching services to needs, increasing the value of economic activities 

serving social needs, fairer income and wealth distribution, correcting labour market imbalances 

and, in short, deepening and strengthening economic democracy” (Chaves and Monzón Campos, 

2008: 6). 

Likewise, public participation plays a central role in the SEBR Framework, as it supports the 

emergence of an environment within which enterprises can thrive. There are different levels of 

participation from the most basic level of information sharing, up to community ownership and 

participatory democracy. In addition, participation is closely aligned with the idea of social capital 

(Putnam, 2000; Woolkock, 2001), since it is an effective way to extend networks of trust, so crucial 

to the flow of information and resources. Overall, participatory approaches are based on the value of 

engaging and empowering citizens to identify solutions to local issues. Moreover, although solutions 

are produced locally, they can provide useful lessons for other localities, thus assuming a global 

relevance. Embedding a culture of participation opens up previously unidentified opportunities 

for collective action and cooperation. As a result, participation can substantially contribute to the 

aims of BRs to be learning sites for sustainable development and spaces for experimentation and 

development of creative ideas. 

3. Experiences from Biosphere Reserves: the role of the UNESCO common institutional 

framework and of contextual diversity

Building on this background, the articles published on this Special Issue develop ideas on 

how the UNESCO MAB Programme, which has institutionalised BRs, has been interpreted at 

local level, across diverse institutional contexts. Specifically, we are interested in experiences that 

emphasise the role (and limits) of community-based initiatives, social enterprise and other economy 

organisations, private business in general, and public participation programmes in enhancing 

sustainable development in BRs. 

The initial article, by Colin Campbell and Silvia Sacchetti highlights the key elements of 

sustainable social and natural development within the broader institutional umbrella offered by 

the UNESCO MAB Programme. This article sets out three policy/intellectual frameworks: those 

supporting BRs, social capital and social enterprises—and the complex relationships between 

them. The article makes an effective case for systems-based top-down governance being linked 




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with bottom-up empowerment to achieve sustainability both for environmental preservation and 

community economic development. The case presented is in Cat Ba Archipelago Biosphere Reserve. 

This is one of eight BRs in Vietnam and part of the UNESCO MAB Programme since 2004. 

These areas are exposed to a serious risk of overexploitation of the natural assets by tourism. The 

article explores engagement initiatives developed by one of the authors, Colin Campbell, as director 

of the social enterprise Assist Social Capital. The interest of this experience is that it presents a 

model for engaging local community constituencies, such as community professions (i.e. farming, 

fisheries, forestry, and tourism), young people, school students and teachers as well as all seven 

village Community Learning Centres on Cat Ba Island. In particular, the model implemented by 

Assist Social Capital, is centred on building social capital and illustrating the opportunities of a 

social enterprise model in supporting BRs and their communities. The model adopts the OECD’s 

definition of social capital (OECD, 2001), which emphasises cooperation within and among groups 

by means of networks, shared norms and values, and common understanding. If supporting the 

emergence of a cooperative relational context was central in the project, equally important was the 

focus on specific organisational solutions to BR development challenges, namely social enterprises. 

In the project, these were presented as a sustainable, not-for-private-profit business model achieved 

through an asset lock, which strives to be financially independent of grants and have primary 

objectives to achieve social and/or environmental benefit. The efforts to legitimise this social capital/

social enterprise model are shown by documenting the strategy implemented with the project, in 

the attempt to maintain legitimacy to the eyes of community stakeholders and UNESCO MAB. 

The insights of this paper demonstrate a potential paradox. On the one hand, a social capital/social 

enterprise approach requires that actors in the community take organised economic action. On 

the other hand, such actions must ensure wide stakeholder involvement in the formulation and 

implementation of activities, to ensure that a common value base is maintained and that activities 

do not threaten the BR. In this light, the paper provides a framework for analysis, which identifies 

a plurality of dimensions (physical, relational, policy, organisational), to be considered in synergy 

when assessing BRs communities and their possibilities. Further research is advocated, to determine 

whether this model creates a lasting and sustainable environment. In the meantime, the Cat Ba 

BR approach was identified as a national example of good practice in combining conservation 

and development for sustainable development at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable 

Development (UNCSD) “Rio+20” in 2012. 

The third paper by Giovanni Teneggi and Flaviano Zandonai illustrates the case of the 

Appennino Tosco-Emiliano UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in Italy. Overarching the Tuscany and 

Emilia Romagna regions of north-central Italy, it covers the Tuscan-Emilian Apennine ridge from 

Passo della Cisa to Passo delle Forbici, which marks the geographical and climatic boundary between 

continental and Mediterranean Europe. The area contains nearly 70 per cent of all animal and plant 

species present in Italy. The main economic activities are tourism, agriculture, artisanship and the 

processing of high-quality foods. Leisure activities and tourism also represent important economic 

assets for the 100,000 local inhabitants. The Appennino Tosco-Emiliano BR includes many villages 



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that the authors describe as highly enterprising and cooperative. In their case studies, the authors 

emphasise that the cooperatives that have been set up have revitalised public places by turning 

private businesses on the verge of closure into productive community businesses. In some instances, 

local communities have championed short supply chains through networks of local production 

companies offering products characteristic of the local culture. In others, small social market 

economy districts encourage business and non-profit organisations. Cultural initiatives re-forge 

relationships and revitalise intangible resources and strengths introducing a new enterprising spirit 

and a fresh sense of opportunity. Teneggi and Zandonai also highlight that the Appennino Tosco-

Emiliano BR most important output is trust, which is created and circulated on a daily basis by the 

experiences outlined above. The authors describe them as “factories of social cohesion” that keep up 

the quality of life in the territory. Initiatives that are started by local inhabitants are complemented 

by people returning to the area or additionally by those from outside the community. The crucial 

factor ensuring that these activities are productive for the community lies in a social contract to take 

ownership and responsibility and to make the community a home. Rather than simply inhabiting 

the area, people who make it their home build deep and long-lasting relationships with the other 

inhabitants and the place itself. The same holds true for businesses based in the area that incorporate 

the BR into their production and/or supply chains. This social contract generates a profound sense of 

relationship that establishes collective destinies. Similar to life in rural and mountain communities 

in times gone by, people and their families are bound together by similar activities, not merely 

for the pursuit of profit but through a feeling of shared future. As a result, the authors suggest 

that enterprising communities rescue neglected physical spaces, making them into sites for living, 

interacting and working once again. Trust, ownership, relationships and local stakeholders are the 

assets ensuring protection and competitiveness of the Appennino Tosco-Emiliano BR, which is 

acting as a model for other rural areas in Italy. The Italian Ministry of Economic Development has 

selected the area as a model site for further experimentation, with the aim of drawing lessons to be 

applied in similar localities, and to extending the benefits of community cohesion to other strategic 

development areas, such as health, education and transport. 

Moving to the African continent, the article by Alexio Mbereko, Olga Kupika and Edson 

Gandiwa explores the evolution of the paradigm adopted by the Zimbabwe Government since 

the first national park was established, in 1872. They address in particular how biodiversity has 

been protected by policy initiatives in Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve in Zimbabwe, which 

is part of the UNESCO BR world network since 2010. Research supports the theory that if 

fauna and flora is not protected by means of rules that are effectively enforced, it degrades at 

a fast pace (Cf. also Naughton-Treves, Holland and Brandon, 2005). Their findings support 

the conceptual framework developed by common-pool resource theory, which emphasises that 

free-riding behaviours can be best avoided by engaging communities of users in the definition 

and monitoring of rules (Hess and Ostrom, 2003). The authors explain that in the late 1980s, a 

paradigm shift took place from protection and exclusion to involvement and inclusion of humans 

in national parks management and the sustainable use of natural resources (Stoll-Kleemann, 



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De la Vega-Leinert and Schukltz, 2010). As a result, international conservation initiatives now 

advocate the use of resource management approaches that centre more on human livelihoods, 

and BRs are a means to achieve this, under the UNESCO MAB Programme to promote 

sustainable development based on local community efforts and sound science (Pool-Stanvlie and 

Clusener-Godt, 2013). However, moving from policy requirements to practice presents obstacles, 

which the authors analyse taking into account the CAMPFIRE programme (Communal Areas 

Management Programme for Indigenous Resources), developed within the BR. The main 

difficulties, as explained, originate from structural weaknesses and national economic difficulties, 

as well as from the persisting over-exploitation of natural resources, either legally or illegally. 

Because of these major institutional and economic shortcomings, the authors conclude that 

CAMPFIRE has not benefitted the poor rural communities of the BR as expected. Looking at 

perceptions in the community, the authors highlight that community members are aware of the 

poor level of stakeholder engagement in the programme (citing for example the fact that they 

are not consulted when hunting licences are granted in the area). Other causes of failure are 

identified in the support activities for business with a short-term profit motive (game hunting), 

lack of policy to enable local communities to benefit from the natural resources in the BR, and 

poor accountability. The outcome is breaking of rules, and emerging of conflict between the local 

inhabitants and the authorities. 

The Swedish approach is illustrated in the article by Magnus Fredricson and Johanna 

MacTaggart, who shed light on the institutional features of the social economy and how these 

may offer consistent organisational models for the sustainable development of BRs. The authors 

apply Flora and Flora (1993) approach to emphasise community development complexity, 

which is disentangled by identifying different forms of capital: natural, cultural, human, social, 

political, financial, and in-built capital. The Scandinavian approach aims at addressing all 

forms of capital holistically and, to do so, it has been applied by activating investments in the 

development of all forms of capital. The authors describe how the Biosphere Innovation System 

(BIS) was conceived with such a holistic approach in mind and to enhance social innovation 

and enable social entrepreneurs to address societal and natural challenges. Especially, the article 

illustrates what structures have been created to promote and employ innovation for sustainable 

development in the Lake Vänern Archipelago BR in Sweden, creating an ecosystem that enables 

use of localised knowledge, participation in social entrepreneurs’ forums for discussion, financing 

and facilitated learning for policy makers and citizens. Being based on shared environmental 

and social values, the authors highlight how the BIS was created with the policy ambition of 

enhancing BR sustainability across the globe, by developing a model which could be practically 

applied to different contexts across the UNESCO BR world network.



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4. Open research questions

These contributions emphasise the features of successful and less successful BR experiences. 

More would need to be uncovered on how these features were brought about. For example, future 

research could address questions such as (i) what is the role of existing social capital in explaining 

the success of formal, institutionalised initiatives aimed at increasing cooperative relations? (ii) If 

existing relational assets have a role, what would the implications be for areas with poor social 

capital, opportunistic behaviours and short-termism? (iii) What factors enable continuity of BR 

designated areas? (iv) What is the right mix of top-down and bottom-up initiatives? (v) How can 

social enterprises and more generally social economy initiatives maintain their pro-social and pro-

environmental orientation over time? (vi) What are the limitations of social enterprises in promoting 

and enabling BR sustainable development?

Further inquiry into the interaction between various institutional spheres, from international to 

local rules and norms, to social enterprise features, nature of social capital, and BRs geomorphological 

specificities may originate more refined analytical maps. Understanding social enterprise as being 

part of wider international and local governance system, underpinned by cooperation and shared 

pro-social and pro-natural values seem today more and more important, especially in light of 

the transformations occurring in the role of the state and of the legitimacy crises of major global 

economic players. More research on the potential of cooperative and community centred initiatives 

would be needed, especially in contexts where the application of shared values is difficult, that is 

in systems where besides declaration of intents, the economic, social and political spheres tolerate 

damaging and unfair rules and practices.

References 

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