Killing Speed: a good Practice Guide to Speed Management



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Attitudes to speed
Research in the UK suggests that motorists justify speeding on a range of counts, including the perception that breaking a speed limit is not a ‘real’ crime. (Silcock et al, 1999). Reasons given include:
It was unintentional

I was in a hurry

The limit is wrong

My modern car can stop more quickly than those which were around when the limit was set

The same limit does not apply at all times (eg at night, on an empty road)

The limit does not apply to me because I am an ‘above average’ driver

It was not a lot over the limit and others abuse the limit more flagrantly

Importantly, factors which influence a speed ‘feeling right’ to a car driver are:

self-image as a driver

the vehicle

the road environment

cultural factors

presence of passengers

perceived risk of detection and prosecution

This shows that a range of cultural, psychological, environmental and technological factors influence the speeds at which people choose to drive, often above the legal limits.

While most motorists continue to flout speed limits, the general public are becoming more concerned about danger from motor traffic and the need to control it. In the Village Speed Control (VISP) study and in another study of village schemes on trunk roads, residents strongly supported efforts to reduce speed, as well as the volume of traffic (IHT, 1999).


The majority of drivers themselves think that the 30mph and 70mph limits are ‘about right’ (Silcock et al, 1999). Moreover, 36% of self-confessed speeders favour a three month ban for people driving at 10mph over the speed limit in residential areas (Lex Motoring Services, 1997). Anecdotal evidence also suggests that drivers who break local limits are among those calling for action to control speeds (see Devon County Council Speed Management Strategy in Section 3, below).
Evidence of success in speed management
There have been a number of successful interventions to reduce speed in situations across the world. One of the clearest examples came at the time of the oil crisis in 1974, when a number of countries introduced lower speed limits. This included the USA, where the fatality rate on interstate highways declined by 32% when speeds limits were reduced from 65 to 55mph (Hakim et al, 1991). When 40 states later raised their limits to 65mph, there was an increase in fatalities on these roads of between

20 and 25%.


Another example has been the Road Safety Strategy implemented in Victoria, Australia. This strategy targeted speeding and drink driving, and was suppported by sustained media coverage. The strategy included a reduction in the maximum speed limit in 1973, and the introduction of random breath testing in 1976, with mandatory periods of licence suspension (depending on blood alcohol concentrations) introduced in 1978. Death rates fell steadily through the 1970s but began to rise again in the 1980s.
In response, Victoria launched a £2.5 million media campaign in December 1989. This employed five 60-second television advertisements, which were designed to be shocking and fully realistic. The mass media campaign included the theme ‘Don’t fool yourself, speed kills’. Speed camera records showed that around 11% of drivers exceeded the speed limit after the campaign, compared with 20% before it (Powles and Gifford, 1993).
The police enforcement programme in Victoria included sustained speed measurement and enforcement of speed limits. It has been calculated that the combined effect of this multi-pronged approach resulted in an average 26% reduction in serious casualty crashes over the period 1990-93. Monash University has estimated that the programme produced social cost savings worth over 20 times the total cost of the programme. Between mid-1989 and 1997 the programme also saved 130,000 hospital bed days which would have been needed to deal with road traffic casualties (Lancashire County Council, 1998).
These results offer an indication of what can be achieved through local speed management programmes. Back in Britain, Lancashire County Council now aims to replicate the Road Safety Strategy implemented in Victoria, working in conjunction with Lancashire Constabulary.
References for Section 1
Appleyard, D (1981) Livable streets, Berkeley: University of California Press

Ashton, S and Mackay, G (1979) ‘Some characteristics of the population who suffer trauma as pedestrians when hit by cars and some resulting implications’, 4th IRCOBI International Conference, Gothenborg


Boezen, M et al (1999) ‘Effects of ambient air pollution on upper and lower respiratory systems and peak expiratory flow in children’, Lancet, 353, (9156), pp874-878
Carlsson, G (1998) ‘Vision Zero’ in perspective of global generalization, paper to 8th La Prévention Routiãre Internationale, World Congress, Lisbon: Portugal
Carlsson, G (2000) Personal communication with Adrian Davis, 18 August 2000
Copenhagen Healthy City Project (1994) City of Copenhagen Healthy City Plan 1994-97, Copenhagen: Copenhagen Health Services
DETR (1998) A New Deal for Transport: Better for Everyone, London: Stationery Office
DETR (1999) Vehicle Speeds Great Britain: 1998, London: Stationery Office
DETR (2000a) 1999 Valuation of the benefits of prevention of road accidents and casualties,

DETR Highways Economics Note No 1: 1999, London: DETR


DETR (2000b) New Directions in Speed Management: A Review of Policy, London: DETR
DETR (2000c) Tomorrow’s Roads – Safer for Everyone, London: DETR
DETR (2000d) Guidance on Full Local Transport Plans, London: DETR
Department of Health (1998) Quantification of the effects of air pollution on health in the United Kingdom, London: Stationery Office
Duhme, H, Weiland, S, Keil, U, Kraemer, B, Schmid, M, Stender, M and Chambless, L (1996) ‘The association between self-reported symptoms of asthma and allergic rhinitis and self-reported traffic density on street of residence in adolescents’, Epidemiology, 7(6), pp578-582
Edwards, J, Walters, S and Griffiths, R (1994) ‘Hospital Admissions for Asthma in Preschool Children: Relationship to Major Roads in Birmingham, United Kingdom’, Archives of Environmental Health, 49 (4), pp223-227
Finch, D, Kompfner, P, Lockwood, C, and Maycock, G (1994) Speed, speed limits and accidents, TRL Project Report 58, Crowthorne: TRL
Fox, J (1988) ‘Social network interaction: new jargon in health inequalities’, British Medical Journal, 297, pp373-374
Glass, T, de Leon, C, Marottoli, R and Berkman, L (1999) ‘Population based study of social and productive activities as predicators of survival among elderly Americans’, British Medical Journal, 319, pp478-483
Greenwood, D, Muir, K, Packham, C and Madeley, R (1996) ‘Coronary heart disease: a review of the role of psychosocial stress and social support’, Journal of Public Health Medicine, 18, pp221-231
Hakim, S, Sheffer, D, Heckert, A, and Hockerman, I (1991) ‘A critical review of macro models for road accidents’, Accident Analysis and Prevention, 23(5), pp379-400
Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health (1998) Independent Inquiry into Inequalities in Health Report, London: Stationery Office
Institution of Highways and Transportation (1999) Guidelines for rural safety management,

London: IHT


Kallberg, V and Toivanen, S (1998) Framework for assessing the impacts of speed in road transport, Contract No RO-96-SC202, for the European Commission
Kallberg, V (1999) Implications of Vision Zero for speed management, Espoo: VTT Communities and Infrastructure
Kawachi, I, Kennedy, B, Lochner, K and Prothrow-Stith, D (1997) ‘Social capital, income inequality, and mortality’, American Journal of Public Health, 87(9), pp1491-1498
Kegerreis, S (1993) ‘Independent mobility and

child mental and emotional development’,

in Hillman, M (ed) Children, Transport and

the Quality of Life, London: Policy Studies

Institute
Klaeboe, R (1992) ‘Measuring the Environmental Impact of Road Traffic in Town Areas’, paper to PTRC Summer Annual Meeting, Seminar B, pp81-88, London, PTRC
Lancashire County Council (1998) Lancashire Police – Lancashire County Council Project Initiative, Highways Committee Report, April
Lex Motoring Services (1997) Lex report on motoring: Driving for safety, London: Lex Service
MASTER Project (1999) Managing speeds of traffic on European roads, Transport Research, Fourth Framework Programme Road Transport, Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
McKenna, F (1994) ‘It won’t happen to me: A partial explanation for our great enthusiasm for speed

and little enthusiasm for safety’, paper to 59th RoSPA Road Safety Congress – Speed: a Limited Future?, York


Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management (1997) At the start: Start up programme, Sustainable Road Safety 1997-2000, The Hague: MVW
Moore, R (1986) Children’s domain: Play and place in child development, London: Croom Helm
Oosterlee, A, Drijver, M, Lebret, E, and Brunekreef, B (1996) ‘Chronic Respiratory Symptoms in Children and Adults Living along Streets with High Traffic Density’ Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 53, pp241-247
Plowden, S and Hillman, M (1996) Speed control and transport policy, London: Policy Studies Institute
Powles, J and Gifford, S (1993) ‘Health of nations: lessons from Victoria, Australia’, British Medical Journal, 306, 9 January, pp125-127
Silcock, D, Smith, K, Know, D and Beuret, K (1999) What limits speed?: Factors that affect how fast we drive, Interim Report, Basingstoke: AA Foundation for Road Safety Research
Society of Chief Officers of Transportation in

Scotland (1999) Speed policy, Linlithgow: West Lothian Council


Stallard, P, Velleman, R and Baldwin, S (1998) ‘Prospective study of post-traumatic stress disorder in children involved in road traffic accidents’, British Medical Journal, 317, pp1619-1623
Talens, H (1999) Road design for sustainable traffic safety, paper to Swedish Road Safety Conference, Stockholm
Taylor, M, Lynam, D and Baruya, A (2000) The effects of drivers’ speed on the frequency of road accidents, TRL Report 421, Crowthorne: TRL
Traffic Engineering and Control (2000) ‘Disregard for 30mph limit is widespread’, June, pp216-217
Transport 2000 (2000) Road safety strategy and speed policy review: A briefing from Transport 2000, London: Transport 2000
UK Government (2000) Press Notice, Speech by the Prime Minister on the Government’s Road Safety Strategy, 1 March 2000
SECTION 2
LEGISLATION
2.1 Local Government and Rating Act 1997
Many communities concerned about the impact of high vehicle speeds are frustrated when highway authorities claim they cannot introduce the schemes called for. Prioritisation of speed management schemes according to volumes of traffic and history of casualties does not deal with the perceived problems (especially the ‘accident waiting to happen’) or the suppression of trips by pedestrians, cyclists and equestrians.
It is not surprising, therefore, that many parish councils have taken the opportunity to fund schemes through the Local Government and Rating Act 1997. This legislation enables town and parish councils to fund the introduction or removal of traffic calming measures. Section 30 of the Local Government and Rating Act 1997 states:
"A parish council or community council may contribute towards any expenses incurred or to be incurred by a highway authority in constructing, removing or maintaining: (a) traffic calming works, or (b) other works (including signs or lighting) required in connection with traffic calming works, if in the opinion of the council the expenditure is or will be of benefit to their area."

Hampshire County Council has adopted a partnership approach and provides matching funding for town and parish councils for traffic calming schemes. In the year 2000/01 a total of 30 schemes have been allocated funds from the County Council’s Rural Traffic Calming capital budget, a significant increase over the 17 awarded funding in 1999/2000. Allocations range from £1,000 to £10,000, but are typically between £2,000 and £3,000. In a number of cases a multi-year programme is evolving.



There is considerable pressure for this type of action from parish councils and residents, particularly in villages. Benefits are to be found not only in casualty reduction but also in improved quality of life for communities. Additionally, Hampshire County Council is seen to take action in response to local demand, and many council members are keen to respond in this way to pressure from villages in their divisions (Hampshire County Council, 1998).
Leominster Town Council, Herefordshire, has contributed in a similar way to a number of traffic calming schemes. In 1998 it made a £6,000 contribution which was matched by both the District and County Councils, and in 2000 it made a £2,000 contribution towards a scheme proposed by a local resident to stop rat-running.
Buckinghamshire County Council has agreed a protocol with the Association of Local Councils whereby it will help parish councils use their powers to promote the introduction of traffic calming schemes, with costs to the parish councils spread over three financial years (Buckinghamshire County Council, 1999).
Because the budgets available are small, low-cost schemes are often adopted which may not achieve the desired changes in driver behaviour (Bellefontaine, 2000). Indeed, local funding of this sort has in the past been an option only for relatively rich towns and parishes.
However, the Rural White Paper 'Our Countryside: the Future' published by the government in November 2000 announced the creation of a new Parish Fund of £15 million over three years to support small-scale transport projects identified by parishes. Under this proposal, parish councils will now be able to apply to the Countryside Agency for grants of up to £10,000 to fund schemes which meet local transport needs (DETR, 2000a).
2.2 Crime and Disorder Act 1998
Fear of crime was identified by the government as a key component for community safety strategies under the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 (sections 5-7 and 17). The Act, which came into force in September 1998, promotes public consultation and the development of local partnerships to identify problems and set targeted priorities for action. Where local people express concerns over road safety in crime and disorder audits, those concerns are regarded as legitimate areas for police activity in partnership with local authorities. The Act thus provides an opportunity for significant expansion of speed management and speed limit enforcement.
The Home Office has informed the Slower Speeds Initiative that 60% of the 259 audit documents sent to them by police and local authority partnerships in England and Wales included discussion of road safety issues in some form. Those partnerships which did raise the issue of road safety in their consultations found it to be a high priority in their local communities. A review conducted by the Association of Chief Police Officers revealed that when audits asked local people about road safety, 86% of partnership areas rated it as an issue of concern to rank alongside burglaries and muggings. As for the crime and disorder strategies themselves, 37% of strategies in England and Wales listed ‘road safety/dangerous driving’ as a priority for action (Phillips et al, 2000).
As part of research for its crime and disorder strategy, North Yorkshire Constabulary conducted a postal questionnaire attitude survey which asked ‘Do you feel your neighbourhood is a safe place for children?’. A total 41% of the 6,747 who answered the question said ‘No’. Of those who said ‘No’, 81% stated that this was due to speeding or other road safety reasons.
Similarly, community safety audits undertaken in Surrey as a result of the Crime and Disorder Act showed fear of traffic, especially speed, at the top of rural residents’ concerns. This has led the police to introduce a Community Speed Management Unit. The Unit is influenced not only by crashes themselves but also by community pressure, and so includes sites where residents perceive there is danger. Surrey County Council is also developing formal partnerships to deliver multi-agency solutions. For example, the County Council is taking on responsibility for parking control to free up police resources for rural speed enforcement (Bertauche, 2000). A speed management strategy has been developed, the object of which is to define the appropriate speed for any given location and identify the most appropriate technique to ensure compliance. This work seeks to move away from the car-dominated evaluation methods of the past and to focus on the needs of all road users, particularly the more vulnerable. Government forecasts that traffic in rural areas is likely to increase by almost 50% by 2031 has provided a major stimulus to this work (Surrey County Council, undated).
2.3 Local Government Act 1999 (Best Value)
The Local Government Act 1999 required local authorities to apply Best Value assessment across their services from 1 April 2000. National Best Value performance indicators will be set each year by the Secretary of State. In addition, local authorities will be able to set local performance indicators which reflect ‘local priorities and uniqueness’. Local Transport Plan indicators and targets are given as an example of such local performance indicators, to be included in Local Performance Plans. Some Best Value user satisfaction surveys have already indicated support for traffic calming and speed management.
The four key principles of Best Value in relation to delivering community-focused services require local authorities to:
challenge existing service delivery

compare own performance with that of other service providers

consult with local people and businesses to determine needs and priorities

compete by identifying cost-effective and innovative ways of delivering high quality services

There is now scope for speed management and other aspects of transport to be considered within Best Value assessments. Traffic calming and other speed management measures may feature favourably in public consultations on Best Value. Kingston Upon Hull, for example, is carrying out perception and attitude surveys of 20mph zones implemented in recent years as part of a Best Value study.

Results of a Best Value review of community safety in West Sussex in autumn 1999 revealed that the top priority identified for road safety was slowing down vehicles. The second priority was more traffic calming. The results of the survey become even more significant for speed management if respondents’ concerns about ‘Better police enforcement of speed’ are added. This makes speed issues the top priority for over 50% of respondents (given that traffic calming is strongly related to speed reduction), as shown in Table 1. This mirrors the findings of an earlier crime audit carried out under the Crime and Disorder Act, where speeding also emerged as a major issue (Makin, 2000).


Table 1: Top 10 road safety improvements identified as first priority in West Sussex according to residents (1999)

No of respondents % of top ten

Slowing down vehicles 155 31

More traffic calming 100 20

More junction improvements 51 10

Better police enforcement of speed 48 9

Better enforcement of parking 36 7

More pedestrian crossings 29 6

Better signing 26 5

Better highways maintenance 23 5

More cycle paths/crossings 20 4

New road construction 16 3

2.4 Local Government Act 2000
The passing of the Local Government Act 2000 in July 2000 provides further opportunities for communities to play a stronger role in partnership with local authorities on transport issues. Part 1 of the Act, ‘Community well-being’, gives local authorities new powers to promote the economic, social and environmental well-being of their areas in order to respond to the needs of their local communities, along with a duty to prepare community strategies in partnership with other local service providers. The strategies are to be based on an assessment of local needs, involving local communities in establishing priorities for action (DETR, 2000b). Government guidance on preparing community strategies was published in December 2000 (DETR, 2000c).
2.5 Transport Act 2000
Enacted on 30 November 2000, the Transport Act 2000 offers a further opportunity to take action on lowering speed limits. Section 268 of the Act gives local authorities the power to designate any road under their authority a quiet lane or a home zone, with speeds as low as 10mph. Furthermore, section 269 of the Act calls on the Secretary of State to review speed limits on rural roads, giving particular consideration to the possible institution of rural road hierarchies. In addition to those mechanisms already available for introducing lower speed limits on rural roads, the introduction of rural road hierarchies would enable local authorities to categorise rural roads according to use and fit speed limits to each category accordingly. The review must publish its findings by the end of November 2001.
2.6 References for Section 2
Bellefontaine, P (2000) ‘Transportation policy – Local Transport Plans and Package Bids’, in Design issues for rural traffic management: Conference Proceedings, Landscape Design Associates and Ross Silcock Ltd, Cheltenham: Countryside Agency

Bertauche, P (2000) in Design issues for rural traffic management – Conference Proceedings, Landscape Design Associates and Ross Silcock Ltd, Cheltenham: Countryside Agency


Buckinghamshire County Council (1999) Local Transport Plan 2000-2005, Aylesbury: BCC
DETR and Audit Commission (1999) Performance Indicators for 2000/2001: A joint consultation document produced by DETR and the Audit Commission on Best Value and local authority performance indicators for 2000/2001, London: DETR
DETR (2000a) Our Countryside: The Future; A Fair Deal for Rural England, London: DETR
DETR (2000b) News Release 514, ‘New Act delivers local leadership and local choice – Local Government Act gets Royal Assent’, 28 July 2000
DETR (2000c) Preparing community strategies: Government guidance to local authorities, London: DETR
Hampshire County Council (1998) Roads and Development Sub-Committee, Traffic calming in rural areas, 26 January 1998, Winchester: HCC
Makin, G (2000) ‘Stop, look, listen’, Surveyor, 6 April 2000, pp14-17
Phillips C, Considine, M and Lewis, R (2000) A Review of Audits and Strategies Produced by Crime and Disorder Partnerships in 1999, Briefing Note 8/00, London: Home Office Policing and Reducing Crime Unit
Surrey County Council (undated) Strategic traffic action in rural areas: Traffic demand management initiative 1997 to 1999, unpublished
SECTION 3
SPEED MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
3.1 City of York Speed Management Plan
York City Council has pioneered a danger reduction approach to speed management since the 1980s, and as a result has met national casualty reduction targets well in advance of target dates. The Road Danger Reduction Charter is the basis of its Road Safety Strategy. The Charter pledges the Council to:
Seek a genuine reduction in danger for all road users by identifying and controlling the principal sources of threat.

Find new measures to define the level of danger on our roads. These would more accurately monitor the use of and threat to benign modes.

Discourage the unnecessary use of private motor transport where alternative benign modes or public transport are equally or more viable.

Pursue a transport strategy for environmentally sustainable travel based on developing efficient, integrated public transport systems. This recognises that current levels of motor traffic should not increase.


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