Major religions



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MAJOR RELIGIONS

Cultural Geography

Mr. Naumann



SUMMARY OF BUDDHISM
The Buddhist religion has a known founder: Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 B.C.). Siddhartha Gautama was born into a noble Hindu family. It is said that he led a very sheltered life, never seeing the hard, painful side of life that included suffering until he was a grown man with a family. He was so upset by this side of life, that he began a search for understanding or truth. His spiritual journey led him to inspire a movement for reform in Hinduism; his goal was never to found a new religion. Nevertheless, his followers ended up establishing a new religion with similarities to and differences from Hinduism.

Buddhism began in India when Siddhartha Gautama became enlightened under the Tree of Wisdom, the Bo Tree. From then on, he was referred to as the Buddha, meaning enlightened one. He began teaching what he had learned and attracted many followers. For a while, Buddhism became the major religion of India, but eventually the majority of Indians returned to Hinduism. Buddhism has spread beyond India to much of Asia, particularly China, Southeast Asia, and Japan. Today, there are approximately 314,939,000 in the world with 313,114,000 living in Asia.


CONCEPT OF GOD: Buddhists generally are not concerned with the question of the existence or nonexistence of God. They do not believe in a personal, knowable God, so speculation about the nature or existence of God is not considered worth pursuing. Their primary concern is with how to live so as to attain "Enlightenment."
SACRED WRITINGS: Their sacred writings include the Dhamma (Sutta), Vinaya, and Abhidhamma. The oldest record of the Buddha Gautama's teachings is the Pali cannon which was written and preserved in Sri Lanka (Ceylon). It is in three parts [the Three Baskets (Tipiaka or Tripitaka)]:
• Vinaya Pitaka--rules of discipline for monks.

• Sutta Pitaka--five discussions of the importance of doctrine.

• Abhidhamma Pitaka--a collection of higher doctrinal discussions that are of psychological and philosophical nature.
IMPORTANT LEADERS: The most revered leader was the founder, Siddhartha Gautama. Another leader was Amitabha, one of many bodhisattvas, or saints of the Mahayana school of thought. Among Tibetan Buddhists, the Dalai Lama has been an important leader. They believe him to be a reincarnation of a famous Bodhisattva.
MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS: The Britannica Book of the Year 1988 and The World Almanac, 1994, divided Buddhists into three groups: Mahayana--56%, Theravada--38%, and Trantrism--6%.

Note: Zen Buddhism is the form Mahayana Buddhism adopted when it was accepted in Japan. Hinayana Buddhism is a name that those of the Mahayana school applied to those of the Theravada school; those of the Theravada school never use the term "Hinayana" to refer to themselves.





LEADERSHIP/CLERGY: Some terms used to refer to leaders in the various branches of Buddhism are: Bhikkhus, Lamas, monks, and nuns. Each Buddhist is responsible for his/her own spiritual pilgrimage, so there is no great need for intermediaries between them and "God." However, leaders can teach them how to improve their journey towards "Enlightenment."
HOLY PLACES: The four major holy places from the early times of Buddhism are: Lumbini, the birth-place; Buddha-Gaya, the scene of the Awakening; Sarnath, the place of the first preaching of the Dhamma; and Kushinagara, the place of the Buddha's decease.
SPECIAL DAYS/SEASONS: In Sri Lanka, the Perahera Festival is celebrated. In the month of May, Wesak (Kason) is celebrated. Buddha Jayanti is celebrated to commemorate the birth of Siddhartha Gautama.
SYMBOLS: The lotus blossom is a frequently used symbol.
SHAPING EVENTS: Buddhism began as a protest against the formalism of Hinduism, some of its beliefs and prescribed religious acts to escape retribution for evil deeds. The movement began after Siddhartha Gautama received enlightenment while sitting under a Bo tree.

Siddhartha began his public life with the sermon, Dhamma-cakkappa-vattana Sutta [Turning the Wheel of Righteousness]. It is addressed equally to all people--to anyone, "who has given up the world."

Buddhism did not take root in India because its egalitarian approach appealed mainly to the untouchables. As it spread to other parts of Asia, some blending with the indigenous religions occurred.
MAJOR BELIEFS AND GOALS: Since Buddhism was an offshoot from Hinduism, it is important to see where there are significant differences. Siddhartha Gautama rejected the idea of the caste system, so there is no separation of people and no idea that a person's social or economic status is a reflection of his/her goodness in this or in past lives. In Buddhism, there is no interest in the origin of the world or in a personal God. The emphasis is on the individual rather than on the supernatural. In Buddhism there is more emphasis on labor, discipline, and compassion rather than on tradition, ritual, and metaphysical speculation. While Buddhists believe in reincarnation, they do not believe in the transmigration of the "soul." Their goal is to eliminate desires, and they believe that if a person dies without having eliminated all desires, the remaining desires call forth, or into being, a new body.

Who was Buddha? Many Buddhists say that it is incorrect to call Siddhartha Gautama "Buddha." Buddha means the "Enlightened One." Siddhartha Gautama is not believed to have been the only "Buddha" to have lived on Earth. It is believed that there were many before him and that there may be others after him. It would be more correct to call him Buddha Gautama.

Siddhartha Gautama was born into a noble Hindu family. He studied Hinduism and practiced it. As a young man, he was sheltered from the realities of the world by his well-meaning father, but eventually he became aware of the real world. He was disturbed by old age, illness, death, and all forms of suffering. He left his home and family and began a Hindu spiritual journey. He spend six years in the forests of India practicing Hinduism and living as an ascetic, but he still was troubled by the reality of suffering.

After spending 49 days sitting under a Bo-tree meditating, Siddhartha Gautama became Buddha Gautama; he had finally reached enlightenment. During those 49 days, tradition says that Gautama was tempted by the evil one, Mara. By resisting the temptations, he was open to enlightenment. At this point, he had a choice. He could remain enlightened and be in a state of bliss called nirvana, having no use for the world of mortal beings, or he could teach others the way to enlightenment before he finally died. Buddha Gautama chose to remain among mortals and teach them the Dhamma, the eternal truth to which he had awakened.

At first, Buddha Gautama and his followers were shramanas, wandering ascetic teachers. They wandered back and forth in the middle part of the Ganges Valley. Later the order of monks developed a settled way of life as communities of Buddhist shramanas began to be established.

The teaching of Buddha Gautama came to be called "the middle way" because it stressed a life between the extreme of sensuality and luxury and the extreme of strict asceticism. Buddhists stress that one doesn't understand the Buddhist way by intellectual studies. They stress that, "If you wish to understand the Buddha's doctrine, you must practice it!"



The Buddhist Way. The path of Buddhism is built on the foundation of the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS:
1. The fact of suffering as a part of mortal existence

2. Suffering is caused by the constant craving of mortals to consume in an effort to ease the uneasiness at the root of their lives.

3. If one ceases to crave or desire, the suffering will cease.

4. The way to cease craving or desiring is through the EIGHT-FOLD PATH.


The Buddhist path is an expression of three interwoven strands: morality, meditation, and wisdom. These are gained and practiced simultaneously, but great stress is placed on morality because failure in morality will block the development of meditation and wisdom. The five moral observances are:

1. I undertake to not cause injury to living things.

2. I undertake to not steal.

3. I undertake to not practice sexual immorality.

4. I undertake to not tell lies.

5. I undertake to not use alcohol and drugs because they cloud the mind.


Some Buddhists add three additional moral observances and at least practice them on special holy days. Together, the eight moral observances are often referred to as the eight precepts. The three additions are:

6. I undertake to not eat food after midday.

7. I undertake to not dance and sing and engage in amusements.

8. I undertake to not use garlands, cosmetics, or personal adornment.


The eight precepts must not be confused with THE EIGHT-FOLD PATH, which is:
1. Right understanding--understanding the Four Noble Truths.

2. Right thought--being free of lust, ill will, cruelty, and deceit.

3. Right speech--not telling lies, hearing tales, using harsh words, talking vainly.

4. Right bodily action--not killing, stealing, or misbehaving sexually.

5. Right livelihood--living in a way that does not harm others.

6. Right moral effort--avoiding evil thoughts and overcoming them to bring forth and maintain good thoughts.

7. Right mindfulness--paying attention to all aspects of the body, feelings, and mind.

8. Right concentration--concentrating deeply on an object to enter deep meditation.


One begins with faith [right understanding and thought], which leads to the practice of morality [right speech, bodily action, and livelihood]. This makes meaningful meditation [right morel effort, mindfulness, and concentration] possible, and all of this ultimately leads to wisdom and enlightenment. So, the Eight-Fold Path will lead to enlightenment because through this process, one will have ceased to crave and to suffer. Now death will not result in reincarnation.

Forms of Buddhism. As ideas and ways of living are borrowed by other cultures, there is usually some blending of the two cultures. As Buddhism spread to other areas, changes took place in it. The result has been different schools of Buddhism.

Theravada Buddhism [referred to as Hinayana Buddhism by Mahayana Buddhists] has been called the path of self-reliance. It is popular in Thailand, Sri Lanka, and Burma. Here the focus is on monasticism. Most men spend at least some part [it may be quite short] of their lives as monks. Attaining enlightenment is up to each individual. Rituals are considered unnecessary in the practice of Buddhism.

Mahayana Buddhism has been called the path of mutual aid. It is also referred to as Northern Buddhism because it developed in countries more to the north of India like China and Japan [The spread of Theravada Buddhism was more to the south of India]. Mahayana Buddhism focuses on being a way that all people can take to enlightenment, not just monks. Ritual and prayer are very important. Buddha Gautama is seen somewhat as a savior. They study the examples of "saints" called bodhisattvas. A bodhisattva is a person who delays his/her entrance to Nirvana so others may be enlightened by example.

Zen Buddhism has similarities to Theravada Buddhism and has been called the path of truth for yourself. It focuses on experience as a key to understanding. Riddles or koans are used to bring forth understanding from the student. Discipline is important to clear the mind and transcend the subject/object relationship--to appreciate the oneness of creation. It is based on Buddha Gautama's flower sermon [in it, he never said a word!].
READINGS:
SAMARA AND NIRVANA
Look about and contemplate life! Everything is transient and nothing endures. There is birth and death, growth and decay . . .

The glory of the world is like a flower: it stands in full bloom in the morning and fades in the heat of the day.

Whenever you look, there is a rushing and a struggling, and an eager pursuit of pleasure. There is a panic flight from pain and death, and hot are the flames of burning desires. The world is vanity fair, full of changes and transformations. All is Samsara [the restlessness of a worldly life].

Is there nothing permanent in the world? Is there in the universal turmoil no resting-place where our troubled heart can find peace? Is there nothing everlasting?

Oh, that we could have cessation of anxiety, that our burning desires would be extinguished! When shall the mind become tranquil and composed?

The Buddha, our Lord, was grieved at the ills of life. He saw the vanity of worldly happiness and sought salvation in the one thing that will not fade or perish, but will abide for ever and ever . . .


THE VANITY OF WORLDLINESS
There was a poet who had acquired the spotless eye of truth, and he believed in the Buddha, whose doctrine gave him peace of mind and comfort in the hour of affliction.

And it happened that an epidemic swept over the country in which he lived, so that many died, and the people were terrified. Some of them trembled with fright, and in anticipation of their fate were smitten with all the horrors of death before they died, while others began to be merry, shouting loudly, "Let us enjoy ourselves today, for we know not whether tomorrow we shall live;" yet in their laughter there was no genuine gladness, but only a mere pretense and affectation.

Among all those worldly men and women trembling with anxiety, the Buddhist poet lived in the time of the pestilence, as usual, calm and undisturbed. He helped wherever he could and ministered to the sick, soothing their pains by medicine and religious consolation.

And a man came to him and said: "My heart is nervous and excited, for I see people die. I am not anxious about others, but I tremble because of myself. Help me; cure me of my fear."

The poet replied: "There is help for him who has compassion on others, but there is no help for thee so long as thou clingest to thine own self alone. Hard times try the souls of men and teach them righteousness and charity. Canst thou witness these sad sights around thee and still be filled with selfishness? Canst thou see thy brothers, sisters, and friends suffer, yet not forget the petty cravings and lust of thine own heart?"

Noticing the desolation in the mind of the pleasure-seeking man, the Buddhist poet composed this song and taught it to the brethren in the vihara [monastery]:

"Unless refuge you take in the Buddha and find in Nirvana rest Your life is but vanity--empty and desolate vanity. To see the world is idle, and to enjoy life is empty. The world, including man, is but like a phantom, and the hope of heaven is as a mirage.

"The worldling seeks pleasures fattening himself like a caged fowl. But the Buddhist saint flies up to the sun like the wild crane. The fowl in the coop has food but will soon be boiled in the pot. No provisions are given to the wild crane, but the heavens and the earth are his."


ZEN STORIES
A Zen story transmits an important truth that cannot be received by logical thinking. The aim of Zen is not to teach, but to awaken and give a person an awareness of the self and the surroundings. Zen's main concern, then, is with individual experience. Most of the stories are open-ended. The point the story makes is not stated but implied. The story must be completed by the listener.

The Zen story does not dictate any form of behavior. It suggests or implies a truth and forces the mind to reflect upon it. This leads to inner activity, for enlightenment can only come from within.



A Cup of Tea

Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era (1868-1912), received a university professor who came to inquire about Zen.

Nan-in served tea. He poured his visitor's cup full, and kept on pouring.

The professor watched the overflow until he no longer could restrain himself. "It is overfull. No more will go in!"

"Like this cup," Nan-in said, "you are full of your own opinions and speculations. How can I show you Zen unless you first empty your cup?"
The Tunnel

Zenkai, the son of a samurai, journeyed to Edo and there became the retainer of a high official. He fell in love with the official's wife and was discovered. In self-defense, he slew the official. Then he ran away with the wife.

Both of them later became thieves. But the woman was so greedy that Zenkai grew disgusted. Finally, leaving her, he journeyed far away to the province of Buzen, where he became a wandering mendicant [beggar or begging, spiritual pilgrim].

To atone for his past, Zenkai resolved to accomplish some good deed in his lifetime. Knowing of a dangerous road over a cliff that had caused the death and injury of many persons, he resolved to cut a tunnel through the mountain there.

Begging food in the daytime, Zenkai worked at night digging his tunnel. When thirty years had gone by, the tunnel was 2,280 feet long, 20 feet high, and 30 feet wide.

Two years before the work was completed, the son of the official he had slain, who was a skillful swordsman, found Zenkai out and came to kill him in revenge.

"I will give you my life willingly," said Zenkai. "Only let me finish this work. On the day it is completed, then you may kill me."

So the son awaited the day. Several months passed and Zenkai kept on digging. The son grew tired of doing nothing and began to help with the digging. After he had helped for more than a year, he came to admire Zenkai's strong will and character.

At last the tunnel was completed and the people could use it and travel in safety.

"Now cut off my head," said Zenkai. "My work is done."

"How can I cut off my own teacher's head?" asked the younger man with tears in his eyes.
A Parable

Buddha told a parable in a sutra:

A man traveling across a field encountered a tiger. He fled, the tiger after him. coming to a precipice, he caught hold of the root of a wild vine and swung himself down over the edge. The tiger sniffed at him from above. Trembling, the man looked down to where, far below, another tiger was waiting to eat him. Only the vine sustained him.

Two mice, one white and one black, little by little started to gnaw away the vine. The man saw a luscious strawberry near him. Grasping the vine with one hand, he plucked the strawberry with the other. How sweet it tasted!







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