Napoleon’s Invasion of (Egypt) Ottoman Empire

Napoleon’s Invasion of (Egypt) Ottoman Empire

• Napoleon’s Invasion of (Egypt) Ottoman Empire

• French Revolution and ideas influence Ottoman Europeans
• Napoleon invaded Egypt, made radical changes while in possession
• Introduced westernization, nationalism into Egypt
• Destroyed Mameluk army without serious loss
• Showed the weakness, outdated nature of the Muslim institutions
• English halt invasion and restore Turkish control of Egypt

• Muhammad Ali emerges as ruler of Egypt after Napoleon

• Began process to modernize Egyptian army
• Hired European officers, adopted European tactics
• Invaded Syria; builds modern fleet to invade Greece, Turkey
• Modernizes economy to support military
• Increased production of cash crops for export: cotton, hemp, indigo
• Improved harbors, irrigation, increased revenues
• Reform frustrated by worried Europeans, traditional Muslims
• Europeans destroy navy at Battle of Navarino

• Khedives and European Intervention

• Egypt: single export crop economy (cotton): vulnerable to fluctuations
• Khedives unable to balance expenses, borrowed heavily from Europeans; in debt

• The Suez Canal

• French build canal connecting Mediterranean, Red Sea (1869); controlled Egyptian debt
• Canal becomes critical to British empire, route to Asia; purchased Khedive’s stock
• British, French intervened militarily in 1882 when Khedive could not pay debts

• Khedive calls in British troops to protect him from army revolt

• British intervened, ruled Egypt through puppets, the Khedive
• British officers controlled Egypt’s finance, foreign affairs; protect Canal

Motives of imperialism

• Motives of imperialism

• Modern imperialism
• Refers to domination of industrialized countries over subject lands
• Domination achieved by trade, investment, business activities
• Two types of modern colonialism
• Colonies ruled and populated by migrants
• Colonies controlled without significant settlement
• Economic motives of imperialism
• European merchants made personal fortunes
• Expansion to obtain raw materials
• Colonies were potential markets for products
• Political motives
• Strategic purpose: harbors, supply stations
• Overseas expansion used to defuse internal tensions
• Cultural justifications of imperialism
• Christian missionaries sought converts in Africa and Asia
• "Civilizing mission“/"white man's burden“ justified expansion

• Tools of empire

• Transportation technologies supported imperialism
• Steam-powered gunboats reached inland waters of Africa and Asia
• Railroads organized local economies to serve imperial power
• Western military technologies increasingly powerful
• Firearms: from muskets to rifles to machines guns
• In Battle of Omdurman 1898, British troops killed eleven thousand Sudanese in five hours
• Communication technologies linked imperial lands with colonies
• Oceangoing steamships cut travel time from Britain to India to weeks
• Telegraph invented in 1830s, global reach by 1900

• Difference between colonialism and imperialism

1875 and 1900

• 1875 and 1900

• European powers seized almost the entire continent
• Early explorers charted the waters, gathered information on resources
• Missionaries like David Livingstone set up mission posts
• Henry Stanley sent by Leopold II of Belgium to create colony in Congo, 1870s
• To protect their investments and Suez Canal, Britain occupied Egypt, 1882

• South Africa

• Settled first by Dutch farmers (Afrikaners) in seventeenth century
• By 1800 was a European settler colony with enslaved black African population
• British seized Cape Colony in early nineteenth century, abolished slavery in 1833
• British-Dutch tensions led to Great Trek of Afrikaners inland to claim new lands
• Mid-19TH century, they established Orange Free State in 1854, Transvaal in 1860
• Discovery of gold and diamonds in Afrikaner lands; influx of British settlers
• Boer War, 1899-1902: British defeated Afrikaners, Union of South Africa

• The Berlin Conference, 1884-1885

• European powers set rules for carving Africa into colonies, Africans not invited
• Occupation, supported by European armies, established colonial rule in Africa
• By 1900 all of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, was controlled by European powers

• Colonial rule challenging and expensive

• "Concessionary companies": granted considerable authority to private companies
• empowered to build plantations, mines, railroads
• made use of forced labor and taxation, as in Belgian Congo
• unprofitable, often replaced by more direct rule
• Direct rule: replacing local rulers with Europeans--French model
• justified by "civilizing mission"
• hard to find enough European personnel
• Indirect rule: control over subjects through local institutions--British model
• worked best in African societies that were highly organized
• assumed firm tribal boundaries where often none existed

Industrialization increased demand for raw materials

• Industrialization increased demand for raw materials

• Nonindustrialized societies became suppliers of raw materials
• Cotton from India, Egypt
• Rubber from Brazil, Malaya, Congo
• Fueled demand for colonies

• Economic development

• Europeans, Americans exported capital
• Capital went to nations with industrialization
• Heavy industry, oil, mineral extraction, grains, railroads
• Better in lands settled by ethnic Europeans
• High wages encouraged labor-saving technologies
• Strong European immigrant pool with some education
• Countries Benefiting
• Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand
• Argentina, Mexico, Brazil, Chile, United States, Russia, Japan

• Economic dependency more common in other countries

• Sub-Saharan Africa, south Asia, and southeast Asia
• Latin America had some industry but largely dependent
• Infrastructure for movement of goods out of country
• Colonies generally export raw materials but little industry built
• Railroads and export infrastructure (ports) built in colonies
• Characteristics
• Foreign investors owned and controlled plantations and production
• Free-trade policy favored foreign products over domestic
• World divided into producers and consumers

Industrialization fueled imperialism

• Industrialization fueled imperialism

• Industry needed raw materials, specialized crops
• Rubber, tea from SE Asia
• Gold, diamonds, copper, coffee from Africa
• Cocoa, hemp from Latin America
• Industry needed cheap laborers
• Entrepreneurs needed markets
• Colonies seemed one easy answer

• Technology applied to colonial problems

• Infrastructure built up to exploit colonies
• Railroads and ports were first to be created
• Bridges, roads also built
• Technology used to extract minerals from mines
• Science applied to farming to increase yields

• Demand for raw minerals, markets produced horrible violence

• British destroy Indian textiles to sell British goods to Indians
• British, Americans, French fight Opium Wars to sell opium to Chinese
• Belgian atrocities in creating the Belgian Congo
• British Boer War to obtain gold, diamonds of Afrikaaners

• Important Fact: Colonies never paid for public expenditures

• Expense by Western governments exceeded what was earned from colonies
• Wealth, profits went to Western businessmen, companies
• Only France and UK benefited from colonies but it was not economic
• In World War I: French African troops saved France at Battle of Marne
• In World War I and II: British Indian Army provided England with an edge to survive

The world gets smaller, nations come together

• The world gets smaller, nations come together

• Technology linked nations that were once distant
• Technology made people in one nation into a community
• US, Canada, Australia, Russia: technology made them possible
• India created by the railroads

• Rise of a true world system

• Communication
• Morse Code, telegraph
• Telephone, Trans-Atlantic cable
• Newspaper industry, mail systems
• Photography
• Transportation
• People visit another country, across ocean in weeks
• Railroads, subway, automobile
• Trans-oceanic ships
• Riverboats, steamboats, cargo boats
• Exchanges become almost instant

• Technology becomes part of life

• Proliferation of machines mechanizes societies
• Joint work of scientists, engineers directly impacted society
• Machines allow humans to change environment radically
• Machines allow humans to make up for environmental shortcomings

Process advocated with Enlightenment, Methodism

• Process advocated with Enlightenment, Methodism

• Ideas of equality of men becomes widespread
• Philosophes attacked slavery, slave trade
• Methodism, spreading in 18th, 19th centuries condemned slavery
• William Wilberforce campaigned to end slavery, slave trade all his life

• Process expanded by Revolutions, Women’s Movements

• Many revolutionaries advocated ending slavery
• Many revolutionary governments abolished slavery (France)
• Haitian slave revolt scares American slave holders
• Women advocated end to slavery as a corollary to gender equality

• Process realized by the British and Americans

• British parliament outlawed slave trade; US ended slave trade in 1808 (had internal slave trade)
• British, US navies enforce ban; hang slavers, freed slaves to Sierra Leone (Amistad Mutiny)
• Latin American revolutions abolish slavery during revolutions
• British emancipate slaves in 1833 throughout their empire

• Civil Wars, Emancipations and Manumissions

• US abolished slavery through Force of Arms, Civil War
• Emancipation Proclamation 1863
• 14th, 15th, 16th Amendments of 1866
• Russia abolished serfdom in 1863
• Brazil emancipated and manumitted its slaves in 1888
• Princess Regent of Brazil abolished slavery in political fight with land owners
• Brazilian elite abolish monarchy, paid slave holders for their lost slaves

• Slavery still existed in Muslim world, Africa, East Africa (British suppress in 1870s)

• Contract labor, share cropping, indentured servitude, tenant farming remained

• Racial equality not included as part of abolition

Imperialism disrupted old social patterns

• Imperialism disrupted old social patterns

• Rearranged social hierarchy to suit occupiers’ needs, understandings
• Europeans, Americans on top of social hierarchy, lived in capitals, owned wealth
• Used existing colonial differences to divide locals, control colonies
• Colonial boundaries cut across ethnic, tribal boundaries further dividing peoples
• Often used minorities including hated ones to administer colonies
• Europeans often imported other colonial peoples to administer different colonies

• Colonial conflict not uncommon in nineteenth century

• Glorious Little Wars were often rebellions, resistance to Western encroachment
• Resistance included boycotts, political parties, anti-colonial publications
• Conflict among different groups united under colonial rule
• One tribe made “elite” in African colonies to assist Europeans
• South Africa: Anti-Apartheid movement began amongst Hindu laborers

• "Scientific racism" popular in nineteenth century

• Race became the measure of human potential
• Europeans considered superior
• Non-White Europeans were considered inferior and needed civilization
• Gobineau divided humanity into 4 main racial groups, each with traits
• Social Darwinism: "survival of fittest" used to justify European domination

• Colonial experience only reinforced popular racism

• Assumed moral superiority of Europeans = White Racial Supremacy
• Colonizers kept themselves separate from locals, created segregated communities
• Westerns strongly discouraged from any marriage, mixing with locals

European Women and Imperialism

• European Women and Imperialism

• Much evidence that European women actively supported imperialism
• Encouraged, supported Western ideas of racism, morality, domesticity, violence

• Non-Western Women and Their Rights

• Emancipation often meant liberation from older traditions, husbands
• Political emancipation, nationalism often took first place over women’s issues
• Progress was slower abroad than in the west, if it came at all
• Emancipation or change often considered too radical, western
• Many western men had foreign mistresses
• Mixed families independent of European wife, family

• African Women

• Men often forced to work away from family
• Women took over male roles: Herding, Farming
• Colonists often needed domestic labor
• Hired African women but little real change

Europeans brought flora, fauna to their colonies

• Europeans brought flora, fauna to their colonies

• Preferred European animals, crops; drove out native species
• Ecological imperialism destroyed many African colonies
• British ripped up throne trees (native fences) to plant coffee
• Trees were home to birds that killed flies carrying diseases
• Flies multiplied in Kenya killing domesticated animals, spreading sleeping sickness

• New crops transformed landscape and society

• Westerners converted colonial landscape to export
• Wanted agriculture to be export, profit
• Converted farming land to use for export cash crops
• Destroyed centuries old farming systems to plant export crops
• Many lands could no longer feed the native population
• Plantations used paid, indentured native labor
• Colonial rule
• Transformed traditional production of crops, commodities
• Africans forced to buy European products at expense of own
• Achebe’s Things Fall Apart detail this in Nigeria
• Examples
• Highlands in East Africa, Ethiopia converted to crow coffee
• Cotton transplanted into Egypt, West Africa
• Rubber plantations transformed Congo
• Clove plantations in Zanzibar

Western schools in the colonies

• Western schools in the colonies

• Provide a pool of people to support colonizers
• Educate the people to become good little westerners
• Often the education was open only to existing elites, upper classes
• Tendency to discourage universities for elite
• British education
• Western literature and manners
• Western sense of morality
• French education
• Create a sense of nationalism
• Emphasis on speaking French, dress, etiquette, cuisine
• Actually accorded many colonials equal citizen status with French whites

• Results

• Ended up educating a new middle class
• Often this group was mercantile
• Many staffed lower ranks of colonial civil service
• Created a common intellectual, professional elite
• Many became doctors, teachers, lawyers, writers
• Many became businessmen
• Created a common sense of belonging to a group
• Gave natives a common language often for first time (even if it was a European one)
• Common attitudes, values which spread across ethnic groups, traditions
• Many of these people would later challenge colonial rule using their colonial learning
• Nkurmah in Ghana
• Senghor in Senegal

Resistance

• Resistance

• Muslim universities
• Frequently organized education around western model
• Educated several generations of students
• Muslim Army Officers in Service of Europeans
• Often educated in western style universities, learned western ideas
• Become source of anti-Western activities even while supporting reform

• Revolt in the Sudan

• Egypt nominally ruled Sudan, attempted to enforce control
• Egypt able to control Nile farmers; opposition comes from nomads, herders
• Rule greatly resented as it was corrupt, overtaxed peasants
• British pressure Egyptians to eradicate slavery, upsetting Muslims (Koran allows)
• Muhammad Achmad “The Mahdi” (1870s)
• Direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad; proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British masters
• Wahhabis Reformer: A very puritanical form of Islam, seeks to purify Islam
• Purge Islam of problems; reform, modernize but not at expense to Islam
• Overran all of Sudan, threatens Egypt, killed British commander at Khartoum
• Khalifa Abdallahi and the Mahdist state
• The Mahdi dies; his successor builds an Islamic state under rule of Koran
• Threatens to overrun all of Middle East, drive out foreigners, westernizers; British intervene

• Revolt in Somalia

• Led by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, the Mad Mullah (1900 – 1920)
• Began against Ethiopian encroachment and carried over to anti-Italian, anti-British raids

• Reality: Reformers Discredited

• Religious revivalists who wanted a return to a pure Islam proved unsuccessful
• Reformers willing to borrow some western ideas could not win over people
• British (Europeans) will send in army to crush revolts, threats to Europeans

Africa 1750 – 1850

• Africa 1750 – 1850

• Few European possessions in Africa
• Atlantic (not Islamic) slave trade ended in early 19th century

• Age of Exploration leads to Imperialism

• Europeans explore Africa, developed interest in Africa
• Permitted by technology
• Transportation, weaponry made it easy
• Medicines made it possible
• Africa was the center, objective of imperialism
• Africa was partitioned between Europeans
• Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent

• Infrastructures and Changes

• Political
• Colonial powers ignored indigenous peoples almost totally
• Set boundaries to states, destroying tribes, unity
• Ruled indirectly through local elites, who they could remove at will
• Undermined traditional systems of rule
• Chiefs derived authority from gods
• Missionaries challenge traditional religion
• Chiefs lost prestige associated with land as people earned money
• Western educated locals challenge traditional ways
• Economic
• Exploitation is the key word
• Minerals solely for benefit of mother country
• Cash crops and agriculture dominated by European crops, interests
• Europeans take best, richest lands for cattle, farming
• Building of railroads, infrastructure especially ports
• Breakdown of African barter system; replaced by monetary system
• Africans forced to work on European farms, in European factories by tax, levies, force
• Loss of African self-sufficiency

Interactions

• Interactions

• War: Egyptian conquest of the Upper Nile followed by British suppression of the Madhis
• War: Slaving, cattle raiding by Caucasian Muslims of Blacks
• Trade: Slaves, ivory down Nile to Egypt later suppressed by British
• Diplomacy: British intervene in 1896 to prevent region from falling into France’s hands
• 1898: Fashoda Crisis - British, French, Belgian conflict over control of Upper Nile led to British victory

• State Structure

• 1821: Colony under Turko-Egyptian administrators, troops, tax collectors, slavers, ivory hunters
• 1880-1898: Madhi centralized state under Wahhabis Islamic sect
• 1898-1914: Joint Anglo-Egyptian co-dominion overseen by British commissioner, officers

• Social and Gender

• Immigration of Muslim Arabic Egyptians into Sudan as administrators, merchant, slave traders
• 1850s: Expansion of Muslim slave trade against black southerners

• Cultural

• Mahdist jihad against Europeans, impure Muslims, missionaries, unfair taxes, in support of slave trade
• Southern blacks largely cattle herders, animists: some Christianity amongst Nubian elite

• Technology

• British used modern weapons, transport to control Sudan, defeat Mahdist state
• Railroads built to Egypt, to port of Red Sea

• Environment and Demography

• Khartoum: newly founded city 1821; fortified trading posts established
• Epidemis: Rinderpest, small pox hit region, killed 90% of cattle, flattened population growth

Interactions

• Interactions

• War/Diplomacy
• Jihads by Sokoto to spread faith; slaving wars; civil wars and disruptions between Muslim states
• 1885 Conference of Berlin regulated partition of Africa
• 1898 Fashoda Crisis nearly led to war with England
• Trade
• Industrial capitalism shaped the demand, supply of goods and service on a world scale; price fluctuations
• Export of vegetable oils, cottons

• State Structure

• Militant Muslim forces established Sokoto Caliphate, others in early to middle 19th century
• French West Africa
• Established in 1895 to unify diverse, widespread French colonial possessions
• Government centralized, direct rule from Paris, by French governor; all levels of government, courts run by French
• All French colonies had to be self-supporting, taxable entities; little direct French investment in colonies
• Forms of resistance: migration, tax evasion, disobedience, disrespect
• Much less obvious, much more difficult to control; resistance continued throughout colonial period
• Africans turned to Christianity, Western education as means of resisting the power of colonial rule

• Social and Gender

• Expansion of slavery to interior of Africa; contributed to agricultural, craft, trading, and herding activities; social prestige
• Mouridiyya brotherhood: peasants, former slaves, defeated warriors to create Muslim community during French colonial rule
• French expect men to migrate for work; while slavery abolished, many coercive forms of labor used

• Technology

• French weapons, transportation, steamships made conquest, control of empire easier
• Use of quinine iin suppressing malaria, permitting Europeans to live longer in the African tropics

• Environment and Demography

• Expansion of peanut production (Peanut Revolution) throughout region
• Introduction of cotton production for export

Interactions

• Interactions

• War: 1750-1830 saw slaving wars between African states; later many civil wars for power
• War: 1870-1914 colonial wars of conquest, British forced to put down resistance
• Trade: industrializing countries sought tropical commodities (oils, cotton, ivory, indigo, gum)
• Exploration: the Niger, interior of the continent

• State Structure

• Forest Regions: 1750 until conquest - Divine right monarchies assisted by elites, councils ruled small states
• Sudan/Sahel: 1750 until conquest- Muslim jihad, reformist purifying movement creates modern, model states
• Royal Niger Company instrumental in acquiring lands, facilitation British expansion to interior
• British establish two colonies: North, South and eventually merge both into one colonial entity
• British dominate highest positions including military; ruled indirectly through local elites
• Educated Africans become government civil servants, lawyers, police, teachers under British supervision

• Social and Gender

• Before British arrival, slave trade redirected to interior and expanded; many economic, social benefits
• African slavery contributed to patriarchy because slave wives had fewer rights than freeborn wives
• Traditional elites remained but undermined by European educated elites, Christians, businessmen

• Cultural

• British, American missionaries set up schools, begin activities (Presbyterians, Methodists, Anglicans)
• Rise of western educated elite due to missionaries, education which challenged traditional elites
• In villages were men migrated to work, women assumed many traditional male roles
• British economics, education disrupted many tradition patterns and changed social focus

• Technology

• Steamboats used in environment; weapons; modern medicines made conquest easier
• Railroads, electricity, roads, port facilities expanded and created a unified colony

• Environment and Demography

• Abolition of Atlantic slave trade in 19th century but expansion of slavery within African interior
• Peanuts, yams introduced into region, a major food crop: population expanded in 19th century
• Rise of Lagos as administrative capital, port

Interactions

• Interactions

• Diplomacy: British acquire land from Dutch following Napoleonic war
• Wars: European border wars with Bantu; Anglo-Boer War 1899
• Bantu Mfecane caused by Zulus; Great Trek: Boers immigrated into interior to get away from British
• Imperialism: gold, diamonds led British to seek to control Boer Republics

• State Structure

• Cape Colony, Natal were British settler colonies; Transvaal, Orange Free State were independent
• Indirect British rule of Africans through chiefs; 1853 British settlers acquire legislature, self-rule
• Union of South Africa as a British federal crown dominion in 1910 united all states, provinces
• Immigration Act of 1913 restricted rights of Indians, led to arrest, rise of Gandhi
• Native Land Act of 1913 restricted African landing holding to under 8%
• African National Congress founded by blacks in 1913; South African Nationalist party founded in 1914

• Social and Gender; Cultural

• 1795 Slaves outnumbered European colonists
• 19th century saw expulsions of Bantu from lands; heavy English settler immigration to colonies
• Casted society with mysgenation laws, racial segregation laws in place
• English Settlers; Afrikaaner (Boer) Settlers dominate society
• Indian indentured labor in sugar plantations; mixed populations in Cape Colony, Natal
• African (Bantu) populations relegated to homelands, tribal lands
• Conversion of many Africans to Protestantism
• Caucasians dominated all levels of the government, economy as there were enough settlers

• Technology

• Railroads, modernized ports
• Heavy mining of gold, diamonds led to industrial capitalism, influenced imperialism

• Environment and Demography

• Ranching and farming introduced
• Cities were often heavily Caucasian, Indian, Mixed populations: black suburban slums