unfair to make this implication that Darwin was
bending the evidence in a ‘perhaps unconscious’ bid
to claim that species were more variable than they
really were, in order to support his argument that
they had evolved from varieties. Also, in view of
Darwin’s extremely negative views about the essence
of species quoted above, it also seems very odd to
argue that Darwin was a typologist.
Mayr’s views are echoed by many other reviews of
the evidence on speciation. For example:
‘One of the ironies of the history of biology is that Darwin did
not really explain the origin of new species in The Origin of
Species, because he didn’t know how to define a species.’
(Futuyma, 1983: 152:)
‘In fact, despite the title of his greatest book, Darwin did
not solve, and scarcely addressed, the problem of how two
different species evolve from a common ancestor.’ p. 481:
‘. . . Darwin thought of species as merely well-marked “vari-
eties;” that is, as populations defined by their degree of dif-
ference in morphological features. Thus for Darwin, as for his
contemporaries, explaining the origin of species was the same
as explaining the evolution of morphological and other phe-
notypic characters . . .’ (Futuyma, 1998: 449)
‘Yet [Darwin’s] magnum opus remains largely silent on the
“mystery of mysteries” [i.e. speciation], and the little it does
say about this mystery is seen by most modern evolutionists
as muddled or wrong.’ (Coyne & Orr, 2004: 9)
M
AYR
’
S IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION
There was one good reason why Mayr felt that
Darwin was wrong and this was to do with the
differences between geographic varieties and species.
Mayr is famous for clearly enunciating the ‘biological
species concept’ (BSC) based on reproductive isolation
(Mayr, 1940), and then elaborating it in 1942 and
later works. But Mayr’s BSC itself was a synthesis of
two major related ideas.
The first idea was that of reproductive isolation,
and in this his ideas agreed with Dobzhansky (1937).
In fact, the idea of species being defined by repro-
ductive isolation had arisen much earlier, in pre-
Darwinian times, including Buffon (see above) and
was an argument that both Darwin and Wallace were
attempting to disprove.
In its post-Darwinian phase, the idea was probably
passed to Dobzhansky via entomologists and geneti-
cists in his native Russia (Krementsov, 1994), who
had been long discussing ‘physiological selection.’
From Dobzhansky, it spread to today’s evolutionary
geneticists. These ideas are traceable to an early
critique of Darwin (Romanes, 1886), through to
Edward Bagnall Poulton and Karl Jordan’s ideas on
reproductively incompatible species (Poulton, 1904;
Jordan, 1905). See Rothschild (1983); Krementsov
(1994), and Mallet (2004) for documentation of this
history. Yet as we have seen, his chapter ‘Hybridism’
shows that Darwin knew a lot about the importance
of ‘physiological barriers’, and had argued carefully
that they were a side issue in speciation.
However, it was I believe with regard to a second,
systematics-based strand of his BSC formulation that
Mayr had a better argument against Darwin. This
second idea was that of the polytypic species. Mayr
had been trained in a German taxonomy background,
where he encountered the evolutionary ideas of
Otto Kleinschmidt, Bernhard Rensch, and especially
Erwin Stresemann. As a bird taxonomist, he had read
David Starr Jordan and the 19th Century American
ornithologists. He had worked as a collector in New
Guinea for Walter Rothschild who together with his
curators Ernst Hartert and Karl Jordan (no relation
to D. S. Jordan) was amassing the largest collection of
butterflies and birds in the world, at Tring, Hertford-
shire. By an extraordinary coincidence, and due to a
blackmailing ‘smiling peeress’, Walter Rothschild
had been forced to sell his bird collection to the
American Museum of Natural History, which was
where Mayr happened to have taken his first perma-
nent post as curator of birds (Rothschild, 1983). These
scientists and collectors in the USA, Germany and
England were busy promoting a new kind of species
criterion in taxonomy, one in which geographic popu-
lations could be greatly different in morphology, but
would not be called separate species unless they over-
lapped spatially without (or with few) intermediates
(Stresemann, 1975; Mayr, 1982; Rothschild, 1983).
This new ‘polytypic species concept’ originated in the
1880s in the USA and Germany, and was accepted by
Rothschild, his curators, and many European orni-
thologists and entomologists by about 1910. These
scientists promoted the idea that geographically sepa-
rated varieties were often ‘subspecies’, rather than
true species. Geographically divergent forms were
only considered separate species if they overlapped
without intergrading. If related, ‘replacement’ forms
did not overlap, or overlapped only at narrow zones of
intergradation, then they were considered subspecies,
rather than ‘true’ species. The Linnean nomenclature
at this time came to be formalized so that monomor-
phic geographic subspecies became a valid taxonomic
rank, whereas most other ‘sports’, ‘varieties’ or ‘var.’
(of animals, at least) were relegated to synonymy. The
species thus became ‘polytypic’, meaning that there
were often a number of named, morphologically
divergent, geographic subspecies within each widely-
distributed species (Stresemann, 1975; Mayr, 1982;
Rothschild, 1983; Mallet, 2001a, 2004).
What I believe is Mayr’s novel, and maybe most
important insight about Darwin’s view of species
most clearly is expressed thus:
WAS DARWIN WRONG?
11
© The Author
Journal compilation © 2008 The Linnean Society of London,
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008,
95, 3–16