Paranormal beliefs, religious beliefs and personality correlates

4.6. PROBLEMS WITH THE STUDY

The most obvious shortcoming of this study was the relatively small sample used (n = 65), which consisted mainly of university students. Hence, the question of generalisability could be raised, since this sample did not truly represent a random cross-section of society. For example, previous research indicates that university students are less likely to hold religious beliefs than those who have not attended university (Ford, 1960; Feldman, 1969), although a recent study by Jorm and Christensen (2004) reported that both the most and least religious groups tended to have a higher level of education. It should also be pointed out that religiosity and paranormal beliefs show some differences in content (e.g. religious attendance) between the investigated cultures and nationalities (e.g. UK, USA, Iceland, Belgium etc.), which may account for some of the variability in results found in the different studies.

With respect to RPBS, Lange, Irwin and Houran (2000) recommend the removal of differential item functioning (DIF) by ‘top-down purification’, which left them with two correlated clusters of items dubbed ‘New Age Philosophy’ and ‘Traditional Paranormal Beliefs’, as resulting from a study conducted on an Australian sample. They noted that cultural DIF might profitably be investigated.
Another issue that could be adapted in this study was the use of the 50 item version of the NEO-PI-R lifted from the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP) when the use of the NEO-FFI may have been more appropriate, as it was the scale used in studies of the PCBS. The use of the NEO-FFI would have maintained more consistency between the studies.
In more general terms, a methodological concern has been brought to the attention in the social-personality literature regarding the use of paper and pencil questionnaire based studies. Tentative evidence suggests that a ‘context effect’ may occur when participants, who complete two or more questionnaires during the same session (as in our research), adjust their responses to items in all instruments, based on a perceived relationship between the constructs measured by those instruments (Council, 1993; Council, Kirsch, Waters and Grant, 1995; Council, Grant, Smith, Solberg, Mertz, Knudson, Titus, Long, and Kramer, 1996). For example, when examining the relationship between paranormal belief and psychopathology, Council et al. (1995) found -as predicted by their hypothesis- no significant correlations when the questionnaires (the RPBS and the Symptom Checklist-90-Reivised - SCL-90-R; Derogatis, 1983) were administered together. But when the context was controlled (i.e. the questionnaires were presented as independent projects by different investigators 2 weeks apart), significant correlations emerged between the various subscales of psychopathology and paranormal belief (mean r = 0.26, N = 92).

4.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

There is plenty of scope for future research in the areas covered in this study, particularly the relationship between the two constructs of paranormal belief and religion, as this represents a first substantial exploratory investigation. Thus, confirmation of this study will be necessary to corroborate the results found here. The relationship between these beliefs and other religious beliefs such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Spirituality etc. could be investigated.

In terms of personality factors, more research is needed in general and in particular of those factors involving the FFM. Also, Saroglou (2002) has previously noted that (in reference to religious beliefs and personality factors, but this can also be applied to paranormal beliefs) further studies providing results on the facet level might reveal further important associations.
The PCBS has already been used extensively in Belgium and has showed differential relationships with a number of variables, such as personality-profiles (Peeters, 2003), racism (Duriez, 2002b, Duriez et al., 1999, 2000, 2002; Duriez and Hutsebaut, 2000,), economic and cultural conservatism (Duriez et., 2002), authoritarianism and social dominance orientation (Duriz and Van Hiel, 2002), mental health (Luyten et al., 1998), and value orientations (Duriez et al., 2001; Fontaine et al., 2000). All these studies could be repeated (and extended) using UK and other cross-cultural samples. Additionally, Duriez et al. (2004) have introduced a shortened version of the PCBS consisting of 18 items, which has performed equally in previous samples. This too could be tested on UK and other cross-cultural samples.

4.8 SUMMARY
In summary then, this study showed that religious beliefs and paranormal beliefs are indeed associated, confirming initial exploratory studies that suggested some kind of relationship between the two (Goode, 2000; Haraldsson, 1981). The other mixed results reflect the need for further research in both religiosity and in particular paranormal beliefs to see if a consistent pattern of results may emerge.
© Huntley, C. , & Peeters, T. 2005.

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Appendices

APPENDIX 1

Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS), Tobayck (1988)
Traditional Religious Beliefs

1. The soul continues to exist thought the body may die

8. There is a devil

15. I believe in God

22. There is a heaven and hell
Psi

2. Some individuals are able to levitate (lift) objects through mental forces

9. Psychokinesis, the movement of objects through psychic powers, does exist

16. A person’s thoughts can influence the movement of a physical object

23. Mind reading is not possible
Witchcraft

3. Black magic really exists

10. Witches do exist

17. Through the use of formulas and incantations, it is possible to cast spells on persons

24. There are actual cases of witchcraft
Superstition

4. Black cats can bring bad luck

11. If you break a mirror, you will have bad luck

18. The number “13” is unlucky

Spiritualism

5. Your mind or soul can leave your body and travel (astral projection)

12. During altered states, such as sleep or trances, the spirit can leave the body

19. Reincarnation does occur

25. It is possible to communicate with the dead
Extraordinary Life Forms

6. The abominable snowman of Tibet exists

13. The Loch Ness monster of Scotland exists

20. There is life on other planets

Precognition

7. Astrology is a way to accurately predict the future

14. The horoscope accurately tells a person’s future

21. Some psychics can accurately predict the future

26. Some people have an unexplained ability to predict the future