Point of departure is the social relativity of scientific knowledge: to what extent do social processes contribute to the development of knowledge?



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  • Point of departure is the social relativity of scientific knowledge: to what extent do social processes contribute to the development of knowledge?

  • How social factors help to explain:

  • These studies are also called:

  • Science Studies or Science of Science



Context of Discovery: scientist is situated in a historical and social context.

  • Context of Discovery: scientist is situated in a historical and social context.

  • Marx: ‘ideology’.

  • Mannheim: ‘sociology of knowledge’.

  • Frankfurter Schule – Habermas.

  • After Kuhn: sociology of science in full bloom.

  • Barnes and Bloor (Edinburgh): ‘The Strong Programme’.



The historical origins of theories.

  • The historical origins of theories.

  • The social and historical context.

  • The subjective side of research.

  • The social influence on theories.

  • Historiography: sometimes called ‘Externalism’ or ‘Contextualism’.



Karl Marx (1845):

  • Karl Marx (1845):

  • false consciousness of the socio-economic dominant class, justifying the status quo

  • i.e. the ideas of capitalism.

  • Karl Mannheim (1936):

  • sociology of knowledge:

  • all knowledge is determined by social-economic factors.



Science and technology have become ideologies they have led to technical-instrumental rationality and objectivism;

  • Science and technology have become ideologies they have led to technical-instrumental rationality and objectivism;

    • s&t serve interests, are instruments for control;
    • they legitimate the system of domination;
    • instrumental rationality is ‘half’ rationality;
    • this criticism of ideology constitutes its unmasking.
  • The liberating force is communicative rationality, domination-free communication.

  • The way to truth is not objectivism (correspondence) but consensus.

  • This means a shift from the Marxian primacy of production to the primacy of communication.















  • Social-psychological studies of science as a societal enterprise: e.g., infrastructure and laboratories; political influences; allocation of means.

  • Social-psychological studies of knowledge-acquisition: social factors of scientific cognition; the social nature of ‘discoveries’; networking.

  • Cognitive-psychological studies of scientific thinking and reasoning; creativity; the genius; discovery.



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