Proverbial poetry: its settings and syntax
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Gezer Calendar which may be a school exercise tablet;3 (4) the use of cuneiform in Palestine (e.g., El Amarna letters and copies of Gilgamesh found at Megiddo);4 (5) the town name Kiriath-Sepher (Josh 15:15) implies a scribal center where training could be obtained;5 (6) the administrational complexity of the monarchy would suggest that there was a school to prepare persons for governmental positions, as well as to train the children ____________________ 1W. F. Albright, "A Teacher to a Man of Shechem about 1400 B.C.," BASOR 86 (1942):31; and Thompson, The Form and Function, pp. 82-83. 2Landsberger, "Scribal Concepts of Education," pp. 105-6.
3W. F. Albright, "The Gezer Calendar," BASOR 92 (1943):16-26. Cf. Gaspar, Social Ideas in the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, p. 146; and Kaster, "Education, Old Testament," p. 30. 4Landsberger ("Scribal Concepts of Education," pp. 120-21) states that anywhere Gilgamesh was found implies the presence of a school also. Gaspar, Social Ideas in the
Olivier, "Schools and Wisdom Literature," p. 59. 5W. O. E. Oesterley, The Book of Proverbs (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1929), p. lxix; cf. Humphrey, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament," p. 115. Whybray objects to this interpretation, suggesting instead that Kiriath-Sepher merely implies a scribal guild, rather than a school setting (Whybray, The Intellectual Tradition, p. 36).
"father" and "mother" in wisdom literature may reflect a school setting, as elsewhere in the ancient Near East;2 (8) the mentioning of the Levitical teachers (2 Chr 17:8-9; 35:3; Mic 3:11; Mal 2:6-7);3 and (9) specific references hint at a school setting (Isa 28:9-10, 26).4 The first explicit reference to Israelite schools is found in Sirach 51:23. Thus, with schools having been found in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Ugarit, and with the above evidences suggesting the existence of a school in Israel, it seems most probable that there was, in fact, a school in Israel, at least by the time of the monarchy. Numerous scholars have accepted a school setting for the book of Proverbs. Indeed, recent paroemiological studies confirm the didactic nature of proverbial materials. The proverbial form has been utilized almost universally in a didactic setting.5 Hermisson is usually ____________________ 1Olivier, "Schools and Wisdom Literature," p. 59; and Halvorsen, "Scribes and Scribal Schools," p. 167. Certainly the tightening of international ties during the Solomonic enlightenment would also suggest such. 2Kovacs, "Is There a Class-Ethic in Proverbs?" p. 173.
3Kaster, "Education, Old Testament," p. 31; cf. Aelfred Cody, A History of the Old Testament Priesthood, Analecta Biblica 35 (Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1969), pp. 118, 187. 4Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 16. 5Fontaine, "The Use of the Traditional Saying in credited with demonstrating the school-like character of the Proverbs.1 Other scholars have consented to this setting as well.2 Scott proposes that Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Sirach were the three textbooks of the schools in Israel.3 Gordis is too speculative when he proposes that there were two types of schools--a conservative one, reflected in Proverbs, and a more ____________________ the Old Testament," p. 89; Alexander H. Krappe, The Science
and L. A. Boadi, "The Language of the Proverb in Akan," in African Folklore, ed. Richard M. Dorson (Garden City: Anchor Books, 1972), p. 186. One can see the didactic character of the Akan proverb in the following (which is appropriate to this dissertation): "The child should take a morsel small enough to fit his mouth." Rosalyn Saltz ("Children's Interpretations of Proverbs," Language Arts 56.5 (1979):508-21) does an experiment on the effectiveness of proverbs in teaching children. 1Hermisson, Studien zur israelitischen Spruchweisheit, pp. 94-96; also Richter, Recht und Ethos, pp. 183-92; and Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints," p. 87.
U. Skladny, Die altesten Spruchsammlungen in Israel (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1962), pp. 44-45; Oesterley, The Book of Proverbs, p. lxi; Crenshaw, "Wisdom," p. 228; Murphy, Wisdom Literature, p. 6; Nel, The
the Modern World," p. 7; Kovacs, "Is There a Class-Ethic in Proverbs?" p. 173; R. J. Williams, "Some Egyptianisms in the Old Testament," in Studies in Honor of John A. Wilson, September 12, 1969, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 35 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969), p. 145; Emerton, "Wisdom," p. 226; von Rad, Old
the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament," p. 120; and Murphy, "Form Criticism and Wisdom Literature," p. 482.
Ecclesiastes.1 The physical discipline encouraged in Proverbs may well reflect an ancient school milieu (Prov 10:13; 13:24; 15:32; 19:18).2 von Rad proffers that the proverbial use of questions also favors a didactic setting (Prov 6:27; 23:29-30; 30:4).3 The school ethos may be displayed in the contrasts between the wise and foolish men (Prov 12:15-16; 13:1), the wicked and ideal women (Prov 12:4; 14:1; ch. 9 contrast ch. 31), and the willing worker and the otiose sluggard (Prov 6:9-11; 19:15). Nel further notes that the school ethos does not contrast with the parental ethos; rather, it stands in loco parentis.4 The pedagogical purpose is strong in Proverbs, not in the sense of patching up a bad life, but in the avoidance of the bad life by the acceptance of good counsel.5 From the continual warning against immorality, it may be deduced ____________________
30 (1939):123 (also in SAIW, p. 220). 2Beaucamp, Man's Destiny in the Books of Wisdom, pp. 9-10. 3von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, p. 18. 4Nel, The Structure and Ethos, p. 80. 5John L. McKenzie, The Two-Edged Sword: An Interpretation of the Old Testament (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1959), p. 218. that the students were young men rather than children.1 It may also be suggested that their curriculum involved the memorization of a few lines every day (cf. Isa 28:9-10, 23-30; possibly reflected in the sentences of Prov 10-22).2 The school hypothesis has not gone unchallenged. Whybray has scrutinized the arguments in favor of a pre-exilic Israelite school and has found them wanting.3 His analysis cautions one about exclusively taking a school setting for Proverbs; yet his position seems to raise as many problems as it solves. He portrays the wisdom teachers as open-air lecturers in an informal setting--more akin to the "sons of the prophets." He opts more for scribal families than for a school per se and suggests that there is no evidence of an organized school system prior to Sirach's comment (Sir 51:23). Crenshaw and Gladson acquiesce to Whybray's analysis which demonstrated the tentativeness of the pre-exilic school and that one should be careful about identifying Proverbs ____________________ 1Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom Literature," p. 84. 2Kovacs, "Is There a Class-Ethic in Proverbs?" p. 173; Christa B. Kayatz, Studien zu Proverbien 1-9, p. 4. 3Whybray, The Intellectual Tradition, pp. 35-43.
rejects the tendency to account for the shift from sentence forms to the admonition form in Proverbs as a result of a school influence.2 The presence of clan and family wisdom elements, reflecting settings prior to the school, points to a multiplex setting and to the schools more in terms of use than of origin.3 This writer favors the view that a pre-exilic school existed in Israel. However, because of the limited data available, one should be cautious about viewing the Israelite school as the primary setting for Proverbs. Rather, the school setting should be seen as one more component of the proverbial Sitz im Leben. The school setting, like the scribal background of the proverbs, adds another hue to the tapestry of a full appreciation of Proverbs.
explicitly and repeatedly made in the biblical text (Prov 1:1; 10:1; 25:1). This is interesting in light of the ____________________ 1Crenshaw, "Prolegomenon," p. 16; cf. also Gladson, "Retributive Paradoxes in Proverbs 10-29," p. 147. 2Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, p. 78. 3Ibid., p. 236; and Nel, The Structure and Ethos, p. 138. Vid. Murphy (Wisdom Literature, pp. 7-8) for a balanced development of the various settings of the family and the school. ancient Near Eastern sources, particularly in Egypt, in which the king and wisdom literature are also coupled. Hence, the kingship will be surveyed, noting its connection with wisdom.1 The King and Wisdom in Egypt It is well-known that in Egypt the king was considered, not only as the son of the sun god Re, but was also thought to be a god incarnate. He was identified with Horus and at death became Osiris. Re himself was held to be the first king of Egypt.2 As a god, he was required to maintain "justice" and the order of the ____________________
and wisdom, one should examine the following standard works on kingship: Henri Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods: A Study
Press, 1978); Ivan Engnell, Studies in Divine Kingship in the Ancient Near East (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967); S. Hooke, ed., Myth Ritual and Kingship: Essays on the Theory and Practice of Kingship in the Ancient Near East and in Israel (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958); and Bruce V. Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship." For a recent discussion of this matter, vid. Gary Smith, "The Concept of God/the Gods as King in the Ancient Near East and the Bible," Trinity Journal 3.1 (1982):18-38.
46-47; C. J. Gadd, Ideas of Divine Rule in the Ancient Near East (London: Oxford University Press, 1948), p. 33; Humphrey, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament," p. 10; Khanjian, "Wisdom in Ugarit," p. 82; and Harvey, "Wisdom Literature and Biblical Theology," p. 312. For texts, vid. ANET, p. 234. Note the titles given to Thutmose III; or, in the "Tale of Sinuhe," observe its praise of Sesostris I (ANET, p. 20). Finally, the title "The Divine Attributes of Pharaoh," in ANET, p. 431, indicates how Pharaoh was viewed.
times by means of the designs of Maat." Frankfort further notes the following text referring to the king's brilliance: "Authoritative Utterance [hu] is in thy mouth. Understanding [sia] is in thy heart. Thy speech is the shrine of truth [maat]."1 Kitchen also notes that hu and sia are personified in Egyptian literature (cf. the personification of wisdom in Proverbs 8).2 Malchow correctly elucidates the strong identification of sia (wisdom) with the king. Interestingly enough, the king was portrayed as the scribe of Re. Re himself was assisted in the act of creation by Hu and Sia.3 The king was also identified with Thoth and of Rekhmire it was said, "Behold his Majesty knew all that had happened: there was nothing that he did not know, he was Thoth in all things. There was no word that he did not discern."4 Likewise, Rameses II is said to possess wisdom from the god Re:
I [Re] make your heart divine like me, I choose you! I ____________________ 1Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods, p. 51. 2Kitchen, "Some Egyptian Background to the Old Testament," Tyndale Bulletin 6-7 (1961):5. 3Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," pp. 61-62. Leonidas Kalugila, The Wise King. Kalugila's book is a masterpiece on this subject.
that your utterance may be profitable. There is nothing whatever you do not know. . . .1
himself to have received wisdom from Re.2 Surely the Egyptian concept of wisdom was not secularly empirical. Rather, wisdom was viewed as a gift of the gods. The king's duty was also connected with ma'at, which is one of the major themes in Egyptian "wisdom" literature. As the son of the creator, and as the shepherd who would defend the cause of the poor, widows, and orphans, the Pharaoh was the one to banish the forces of chaos and to renew order (ma'at) in the land.3 Not only is the idea of the kingship interlaced with wisdom motifs, but the king is also explicitly linked to numerous instruction texts. Merikare, for example, is a pharaoh who wrote instructions to his son, as is also the case of "The Instruction of Amenemhet." Both are from Middle Kingdom Egypt. "The Instruction of Prince Hardjedef" is also addressed to the king's son.4 Other ____________________ 1Ibid., p. 26. 2Ibid., pp. 20, 30. 3Humphrey, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Book of Proverbs," p. 180; Kovacs, "Sociological- Structural Constraints," p. 136; and Kaligula, The Wise
Good Shepherd Discourses," (Th.D. dissertation, Grace Theological Seminary, 1981).
("Stela of Sehetep-ib-re") or are written by royal court members (Ptahhotep and Amenemope).2 Williams points out that some instruction literature was utilized as propaganda favoring the king, having been written by his scribes for that purpose (cf. "Instruction of Amenemhet").3 Thus, if one is to develop properly a matrix of the wisdom materials, kingship is one component which must be taken into account in Egypt.
Mesopotamia, where the king was viewed as "the great man." The kingship was regarded as having descended from heaven; hence, it was a divine institution. At Ugarit, the king was the foster son of the deity.4 The king was a man ____________________ Ancient Egyptian Literature, 1:125-29. 1Crenshaw, Old Testament Wisdom, p. 218. For the texts, see Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature 1:58-60, 135-38, or ANET, pp. 414-19.
Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, 1:125-129. 3R. J. Williams, "The Literature as a Medium of Political Propaganda in Ancient Egypt," in The Seed of Wisdom: Essays in Honour of T. J. Meek, ed. W. S. McCullough (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1964), p. 22; and Halvorsen, "Scribes and Scribal Schools," p. 100.
Miller, OTL (Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1977), p. 371; and Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral
to administer justice as their servant.1 The king was not considered to be a god, but was "god's foreman among the labourers."2 Like the Egyptian pharaoh, he was commissioned to maintain harmonious relations between the people and the gods, to restrain the power of chaos, and to cultivate the cosmic order.3 What was the Mesopotamian king's relationship to wisdom? Sulgi of Ur and Isme-Dagan of Isin boast of their accomplishments in the edubba. Much later, Ashurbanipal's zeal for learning was one of the great heritages received from ancient Assyria.4 An interesting letter to Ashurbanipal (ca. 650 B.C.) states:
grandfather of the king my lord, 'O sage!' You, the king, lord of kings, are the offspring of the sage and of Adapa. . . . You surpass in knowledge Apsu (the ____________________ Kingship," pp. 72-73. 1Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods, pp. 237-38; and G. W. Ahlstrom, "Solomon, the Chosen One," p. 93. Cf. also Norman W. Porteous, "Royal Wisdom," VTSup 3 (1969):247-61. 2Gadd, Ideas of Divine Rule in the Ancient Near East, pp. 8-9; and Humphreys, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament," p. 59. 3Humphreys, "The Motif of the Wise Courtier in the Old Testament," p. 58; and Kovacs, "Sociological- Structural Constraints," p. 138.
170, 172-75; and Halvorsen, "Scribes and Scribal Schools," p. 24. abyss) and all craftsmen.1 Elsewhere Ashurbanipal writes: "I, Ashurbanipal, learned the wisdom of Nabu, the entire art of writing on clay tablets."2 He thus connects his wisdom to the gods and to the ability to write. Wisdom was directly associated with the kings of Mesopotamia and kings such as Samsu-iluna, Esarhaddon, Nebuchadrezzar and Nabonidus associate wisdom with their reigns.3 Wifall also notes a text where Sargon II of Assyria requests "quick understanding and an open mind" from the god Ea.4 Lipit-Ishtar and Enlil-bani of Isin both claim to have received wisdom from the gods. Of Enlil-bani it is written, "Asarilubi has bestowed on you (wisdom) understanding, Nisaba, the lady, the goddess, the great Nisaba. . . . The counsellor has called a revenger for you, has given you wisdom. . . .5 Of Gudea, as he began to build the temple, it was said: "The faithful ____________________ 1Pritchard, ANET, p. 450. Nabonidus similarly talks of his divinely-given wisdom, received in a vision by the god, "[Even] if I do not know how to write (with the stylus)" (ANET, p. 314). Cf. Hammurabi's statements where Marduk allegedly endued him with wisdom (ANET, p. 270). Cf. Malchow, "The Roots of Israel's Wisdom in Sacral Kingship," pp. 67-68; and Perdue, Wisdom and Cult, p. 91.
189-91.
4Walter Wifall, "Israel's Covenant Wisdom," Bible Today 64 (1973):1048. 5Kalugila, The Wise King, pp. 48-49. shepherd, Gudea was very wise, he accomplished great things."1 Much later Sargon proudly states: "In my universal wisdom, I who at the command of Ea was endowed with understanding and filled with skill. . . ."2 Hammurabi, Addad-Nirari, and Sennacherib make claims of being endowed with divine wisdom from Ea, Marduk or Shamash.3 Thus, in Mesopotamia as in Egypt, wisdom was certainly not viewed as a secular phenomenon. Kalugila also notes that the epithets denoting wisdom, by which the gods were known, were also applied to the kings.4 Several direct connections may be made between specific "wisdom" texts and the kings. The "Instructions of Suruppak," an early Sumerian wisdom poem, is from the mysterious person of Suruppak, who appears in some of the Sumerian King Lists.5 Fontaine cites a proverb which was given by King Samsi-Adad to his son, who was appointed ruler of Mari.6 Finally, the Akkadian wisdom text "Advice to a Prince," which was found in Ashurbanipal's library, ____________________ 1Ibid., p. 49. 2Ibid., p. 51. 3Ibid., p. 56. 4Ibid., p. 47. 5Lambert, BWL, pp. 92-93; and Alster, Studies in Yüklə 6,58 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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