Proverbial poetry: its settings and syntax



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"They rely exclusively on rational scrutiny and on a

practised delicacy of appraisal and have no room in their

system for the religious authority which is exemplified in

the prophetic dabar."2 Fichtner explains the name of

deity in the older proverbial materials as being without

reflection and devoid of substantial, Israelite religious

content.3 Irwin portrays the intellectuals in Israel as

viewing man's destiny as a "mundane affair. His personal

good was to be found in this life, and his achievement,

whatever it might be, related only to this world."4 Scott

____________________

1Eichrodt, Theology of the Old Testament, 2:81-83.

2William McKane, Prophets and Wise Men, SBT 44, ed.

C. F. D. Moule et al. (Naperville, IL: Alec R. Allenson,

Inc., 1965), pp. 65-66. Also vid. the approach McKane

takes on the sentence literature in Prov 10ff. (Proverbs,

pp. 11-13). R. B. Y. Scott also manifests this attitude by

portraying Prov 10-22 and 25-29 as "more secular and less

didactic in tone" (Proverbs- Ecclesiastes, AB, ed. W. F.

Albright and D. N. Freedman [Garden City: Doubleday &

Company, Inc., 1965], p. 83). The best discussion on the

relation of the prophetic dabar and the sages' authority is

found in Crenshaw's Prophetic Conflict, (Berlin: Walter de

Gruyter, 1971), pp. 116-23.



3Johannes Fichtner, Die altorientalische Weisheit

in ihr israelitische-judische Auspragung: eine Studie zur

Nationalisierung der Weisheit in Israel, BZAW 62 (Giessen:

A. Topelmann, 1933), p. 98.



4William A. Irwin, "Man," in The Intellectual

Adventure of Ancient Man, ed. H. A. Frankfort, J. A.

similarly contrasts wisdom as anthropocentric with the

prophets as theocentric. Zimmerli speaks of autonomous

man and rejects proverbial elements which elucidate man's

creatureliness as secondary (Prov 15:11; 16:1; 20:12;

22:2).1

It has been fortunate that the above secular

analyses of wisdom have been largely rejected;2 yet,

Brueggemann has properly criticized the church for

ignoring the proverbial material due to the church's lack

of concern for the "mundane" issues discussed therein. He

states, "From time to time, the church has not really

cared if 'a city is exalted' or if 'it is overthrown'"

(Prov 11:11).3 Indeed this view of the secular character

of Proverbs may be a result of a simplistic reading of the

text.4

The second approach which has tended to secularize

____________________

Wilson, T. Jacobsen, and W. A. Irwin (Chicago: The

University of Chicago Press, 1977), p. 264.



1Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 116; Walther

Zimmerli, "Concerning the Structure of Old Testament

Wisdom," pp. 176-77. Cf. also Schmid, Wesen und

Geschichte der Weisheit, p. 155.

2Rylaarsdam (Revelation in Jewish Wisdom

Literature, p. 21) and Leonidas Kalugila, in The Wise

King, prove conclusively the close relationship of the

gods and wisdom in the ancient Near East. Thus to talk of

secular wisdom is anachronistically ill-conceived.

3Brueggemann, In Man We Trust, p. 17.

4Derek Kidner, "The Relationship between God and

Man in Proverbs," TB 7-8 (July 1961):4.


wisdom rejects a quid pro quo deletion of God by secular

humanism. This humanistic position does not eliminate God

as the first position does, but, rather, emphasizes the

anthropocentric character of wisdom. For lack of a better

title, this will be designated as a theistic humanistic

approach to wisdom. Rankin begins his treatment of wisdom

by naming the wisdom literature "The Documents of Hebrew

Humanism"--"not in the sense of a rejection of the

supernatural, or even as intending a concern chiefly with

man's welfare, but because its general characteristic is

the recognition of man's moral responsibility, his

religious individuality and of God's interest in the

individual life."1 This type of "humanism" is consistent

with the text. Man is not viewed as "cowering, and

self-denying," but, rather, in Brueggemann's formulation,

as the king of creation--as one trusted and responsible.2

Brueggemann's stress on affirming man's responsibility and

trustedness is helpful when placed into a theological

framework.

Thus, it should be noted that two types of

____________________

1Rankin, Israel's Wisdom Literature, p. 1. John

Priest gives an interesting discussion of this issue,

including a definition of "humanism" which is crucial to

this whole discussion ("Humanism, Skepticism, and

Pessimism in Israel," JAAR 36 [1968]:311-26). Gladson,

"Retributive Paradoxes in Proverbs 10-29," p. 279.

2Walther Brueggemann, "Scripture and an Ecumenical

Life-Style: A Study in Wisdom Theology," Int 24.1

(January 1970):16.

"humanists" are found in these studies. The first,

secular humanists, emphasize humanism to the point of the

negation of God's involvement, which is usually written

off as a late accretion to wisdom. A second group,

theistic humanists, while acknowledging God's work, affirm

man's work and control of his world and reject any

inherent dichotomy between the two. This second

perspective presents a needed balance to those who reduce

wisdom to "the fear of the Lord," ignoring or theologizing

its anthropological quiddity. Yet, to say that self,

rather than God, is the starting place of wisdom would

abrogate the clear statements of the text (Prov 1:1-8).1

Hence, Murphy correctly suggests a "theological

anthropology."2 Numerous writers have rejected the

"secular humanist" position. Harvey successfully

incriminates this position, when he notes that the whole

of Proverbs 10-15 (the oldest wisdom) centers on the

"righteous man" and the "wicked," both of which have

____________________



1James L. Crenshaw, "Popular Questioning of the

Justice of God in Ancient Israel," p. 382. His later

statement--"Moreover, a strong humanism pervades the

tradition, although that optimism regarding human

potential springs from a conviction that God has created

the universe orderly"--seems more accurate (Old Testament



Wisdom, p. 55).

2Murphy, "Interpretation of Wisdom," p. 292. Cf.

also Fox, "Aspects of the Religion of the Book of

Proverbs," p. 63.

strong theological overtones.1

It may also be argued that the distinction between

sacred and profane and the caricature of the ancient wise

man as an agnostic scholar are foreign to ancient Near

Eastern culture, as Kalugila has recently suggested.2

Some scholars delight in looking down the well of history

only to see their own faces reflected in the waters below.

The secular humanist approach polarizes wisdom by

twentieth century glasses.3 Nel disapproves of the idea

of an autonomous man ethos in Proverbs and correctly

perceives the will and actions of man as subordinate to

the demesne of Yahweh (Prov 14:2; 16:1-3; 17:3; 20:9;

21:2; 21:31).4 Kidner, in a positive manner, states:

Similarly in the realm of conduct, which is Proverbs'

field, the one Lord makes known His will, and thereby

a single standard of what is wise and right, and a

satisfying motive for seeking it. So a sense of

purpose and calling lifts the teaching of Proverbs

above the pursuit of success or tranquility, clear of

the confines of a class-ethic or a dry moralism, into

the realm of knowing the living God 'in all (one's)

ways.'5

____________________



1Harvey, "Wisdom Literature and Biblical Theology,"

p. 317; and Scott, Proverbs-Ecclesiastes, p. 26.



2Kalugila, The Wise King, pp. 12-17; 90-100.

3Roland E. Murphy, review of Wisdom in Israel, by

Gerhard von Rad, in CBQ 33 (1971):287.



4Nel, The Structure and Ethos, pp. 108-13.

5Derek Kidner, The Proverbs: An Introduction and

Commentary, The Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries

(Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1964), p. 21.



Empirical, Rational, and

Eudaemonistic Wisdom
Having briefly surveyed the secular humanist and

theistic humanist approaches to wisdom, we will next give

an overview of empirical, rational and eudaemonistic

approaches. Each of these will have, in part, valid

insights; yet an overemphasis will prove to be the faux

pas of each system. A discerning eclectic approach will

have a kalogenetic effect on the understanding of the

text.

Those advocating an empirical approach to the



proverbs are not a homogeneous group. Some, such as

Gordis,1 develop two types of wisdom, an



Erfahrungsweisheit (wisdom of experience) and a

theologische Weisheit (theological wisdom). One wonders

whether such a bifurcation reflects Proverbs which seems

to mix without effort these two perspectives that are so

distinct to modern, post-Kantian minds. Proverbs, for

Zimmerli, lacks any basis of authority outside of the

validating experience of man.2 While the experiential

character of wisdom should be acknowledged (Prov 7:6),3

____________________



1Robert Gordis, "The Social Background of Wisdom

Literature," HUCA 18 (1943, 1944):79-80.



2Zimmerli, "Structure of Old Testament Wisdom,"

pp. 183, 185. For Zimmerli, the starting point is man and

the question is "How do I as man secure my existence?" (p.

190).


3James L. Crenshaw, "Wisdom," in Old Testament Form

this must not be done at the expense of the revelatory and

divine ethos of biblical wisdom. Oftentimes, the proverbs

are observational without necessarily being moralistic.

They frequently are merely descriptive of empirical

realities (Prov 13:7; 18:16; 20:14, 29).1

There is an empirical emphasis in Proverbs which

should not be ignored by a negatively-biased theological

parti pris which demeans or reinterprets the clear

statements of the text (Prov 26:12). The whetting of the

senses as a means of learning is frequent in Proverbs

(especially the eyes 7:6, 7; 17:24; 27:12; ear 2:2; 18:15;

and the use of one's mind 7:3; 18:15; 22:17). The

Sumerian words for wisdom are reflective of this outlook

as well: gis-tuku or gestu, meaning "ear" or "hearing."2

The frequent calls to attention (3:1; 4:1; 5:1) also

stress the need to harness one's faculties in the learning

process. Thus, wisdom comes to man by his sense

perceptions, in tandem with listening to divine torah,

____________________

Criticism, ed. John H. Hayes (San Antonio: Trinity

University Press, 1974), p. 231; Murphy, Introduction to



Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, p. 30; and von

Rad, Wisdom in Israel, p.4.



1Roland E. Murphy, Wisdom Literature: Job,

Proverbs, Ruth, Canticles, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, Forms

of the Old Testament Literature, ed. R. Knierim and G. M.

Tucker (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.,

1981), p. 4; Crenshaw, "Wisdom", p. 77; and Fox, "Aspects

of the Religion of the Book of Proverbs," pp. 62-63.

2Kalugila, The Wise King, pp. 38f.
which should not be excluded (Ps. 1:2).1 This empirical

approach is explicitly manifested elsewhere in wisdom as

well (Eccl l:13; Sir 17:6, 8).2

While an empirical element must not be ignored or

de-emphasized, it must not be seen as the starting point

of wisdom. The starting point and goal of wisdom is

clearly stated to be the fear of the Lord (Prov 1:7; Eccl

13:7). Mere empirical observations, while accounting for

many of the proverbs, leave a significant number

untouched. The intentions of a man, for example, are not

open to empirical verification, yet they are the point of

discussion of numerous proverbs (Prov 26:23-24; 27:6, 14).

These same proverbs prescribe caution, in that mere

outward appearances and empirical data may be deceiving.

Similarly, references to Yahweh and the cult (Prov 10:3;

11:1; 15:8; 21:27) are not open to empirical

verification.3

Nel correctly observes that the fear of Yahweh "does not

allow us to interpret wisdom as natural theology."4

____________________



1Rylaarsdam, Revelation in Jewish Wisdom

Literature, p. 66; and Worrell, "The Theological Ideas of

the Old Testament Wisdom Literature," p. 88.



2von Rad, Wisdom in Israel, p. 287; Luis Alonso-

Schokel, "The Vision of Man in Sirach 16:24-17:14," in



Israelite Wisdom: Theological and Literary Essays in

Honor of Samuel Terrien, ed. J. G. Gammie et al. (New

York: Union Theological Seminary, 1978), p. 238.



3Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural Constraints,"

pp. 182-86.



4Nel, The Structure and Ethos, p. 182.
It is clear that the proverbs are not merely bald

empirical observations, but, rather, they take the sensory

data of many particulars and, through a rationalistic

process, create a single, compressed statement, which will

explain the vast number of particular situations from

which it was taken and to which it may be applied.1 All

this is done within a Yahwistic framework, which directs

the individual to the fear of Yahweh as a result of his

observations.

While certainly one would reject Scott's dichotomy

between reason/experience and revelation,2 there is

definitely a stronger rational element in wisdom than is

found elsewhere in Scripture. The careful weighing of

various possibilities (Prov 15:16, 17) was part of the

task of the wise man, as was the movement from the

particulars to the general--both of which are rational

operations demonstrating the wise man's perceptiveness

(Prov 7:6-27).3 Since wisdom is viewed as a divine gift,

____________________

1James G. Williams, Those Who Ponder Proverbs:

Aphoristic Thinking and Biblical Literature, Bible and

Literature Series, ed. D. M. Gunn (Sheffield: The Almond

Press, 1981), pp. 35-36, 89; Carole R. Fontaine,

Traditional Sayings in the Old Testament, Bible and

Literature Series, ed. D. M. Gunn (Sheffield: The Almond

Press, 1982), pp. 8, 49; also vid. Heda Jason's excellent

model of proverb form and function: "Proverbs in Society:

the Problem of Meaning and Function," Proverbium 17

(1971):620.



2Scott, The Way of Wisdom, p. 113.

3Zimmerli, Old Testament Theology in Outline, p.
however, the wise men themselves were careful not to

attribute these sagacious perceptions exclusively to their

own acumen, but acknowledged divine origin (Prov 3:4-5;

1 Kgs 3:5-15; Exod 31:1-5; 2 Sam 16:23). The distinction

between faith and reason was foreign to ancient Israel.

An outgrowth of the empirical/rational emphases of

wisdom has been to view them as pragmatic in character.

Though Paterson's division between utilitarianism and

absolute moral law is an incorrect view of Israel's

pragmatism (vid. Prov l7:8), Kelly does better by seating

the non-theoretical, work-clothes tenor of Proverbs firmly

in a theistic Gestalt.1 Murphy properly warns against

simply writing off wisdom as mere pragmatism and

neglecting to comprehend its religious foundations.2

The eudaemonistic character of wisdom was

____________________

153; also Gladson, "Retributive Paradoxes in Proverbs

10-29," p. 279; and Kovacs, "Sociological-Structural

Constraints," pp. 47, 395.

1John Paterson, The Wisdom of Israel (London:

Lutterworth and Abingdon, 1961), p. 86; B. H. Kelly, "The

Book of Proverbs," Int 2 (1948):345; cf. also Crenshaw,

Old Testament Wisdom, p. 19 and von Rad, Wisdom in Israel,

pp. 74, 77.

2Murphy, Introduction to Wisdom Literature of the

Old Testament, pp. 16, 46. Ernst Wurthwein, working with

Egyptian materials, notes that "a thoroughly religious

understanding of life and world stands behind the often

utilitarian-sounding counsels" ("Egyptian Wisdom and the

Old Testament," p. 117); so also J. W. Gaspar, Social

Ideas in the Wisdom Literature of the Old Testament, The

Catholic University of America Studies in Sacred Theology,

No. 8 (Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America

Press, 1947), p. 116.

emphasized by early wisdom studies, which viewed Proverbs

from an anthropocentric base. The goal of wisdom was the

happiness of the individual and the secure and successful

establishment of his life.1 Its eudaemonistic character

was believed to be reflected in the retribution principle:

he who does good ethically will receive good materially,

that is, riches, security, life, and happiness. The

recent development of the connection of wisdom to the



ma'at principle has eliminated the viewing of wisdom as

simply eudaemonistic.2 The basis is now seen as the

upholding of ma'at, or the world order, in which the

individual, if he participates compatibly, can secure for

himself a measure of happiness and security. This model

fits well both in Egypt and, to some extent, in Israel.

____________________

1Zimmerli, "Concerning Structure of Old Testament

Wisdom," pp. 176-92, especially p. 190. Zimmerli deals

extensively with his fundamental question, "How do I as

man secure my existence?" (Prov 10:9). W. Baumgartner,



Israelitische und altorientalische Weisheit, Sammlung

Gemeinverstandlicher Vortrage und Schriften aus dem Gebiet

der Theologie und Religionsgeschichte, vol. 166, ed. P.

Siebeck (Tubingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1933), pp. 27-29.

2Harmut Gese, Lehre und Wirklichkeit in der alten

Weisheit, pp. 7-11. Also J. A. Emerton, "Wisdom," in

Tradition and Interpretation, ed. G. W. Anderson (Oxford:

Clarendon Press, 1979), pp. 216-17; Philip Nel, "A

Proposed Method for Determining the Context of the Wisdom

Admonitions," Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages 6

(1978):33; Roland E. Murphy, "The Wisdom Literature of the

Old Testament," in The Human Reality of Sacred Scripture,

vol. 10 (New York: Paulist Press, 1965), p. 131; and

Harvey, "Wisdom Literature and Biblical Theology," p. 309.



Evolutionary Model: From

Secular to Religious
While most of the above perspectives on wisdom

have been modified to positions which reflect the

canonical text, the proposed evolutionary models still

refuse to accept the text by either reinterpreting the

data, or, much more commonly, via the use of a scissors

and paste methodology, reconstructing the text to fit

their model. Perhaps the most prevalent evolutionary

model held today is the movement from secular, early,

proverbial statements to later religious and Yahwistic

renditions. Baumgartner, for example, notes "how the

rules of mere worldly wisdom diminish, eudaemonistic

motives are replaced by moral and religious ones. . . ."1

More recent has been McKane's atomistic approach, by which

he divides the sentence literature (Prov 10-29) on the

basis of three preconstructed classes: Class A (old

wisdom educational principles on how to live a successful

life); Class B (shows a concern for the community,

exposing anti-social behaviour); and Class C (identified

by the presence of Yahwistic elements). Thus, his

____________________



1Baumgartner, "The Wisdom Literature," p. 214. He

also cites Gunkel and Fichtner as supporting this

position. Also of this school are: M. D. Conway, Solomon

and Solomonic Literature (New York: Haskell House

Publishers Ltd., 1973), p. 77; Charles C. Forman, "The

Context of Biblical Wisdom," The Hibbert Journal 60

(1962):129; Gaspar, Social Ideas in the Wisdom Literature



of the Old Testament, p. 119.

commentary, which has been hailed as the replacement for

Toy's classic on Proverbs, tears the text of Proverbs into

these three categories, then shuffles and comments on them

after they are reordered under these new headings. McKane

thereby violates the canonical shape and texture of the

text, which will be shown to be significant even in the

sentence literature. He also takes issue with von Rad's

idea of the religious element being original to the

proverbial materials.1 Even more recently, Bryce has

constructed an evolutionary model, based on an Egyptian

Vorlage, which moves through adapted and assimilated

stages, to a stable, fully-integrated, Yahwistic piece of

literature.2 Bryce uses a comparison between Amenemope

9:7-8 and Proverbs 15:16 to show that the Yahwistic

element was added.3

The evidence for such views is varied. Fichtner,

based on an analysis of the motive clauses, suggests that,

____________________



1McKane, Proverbs, pp. 11-12 and also in his

Prophets and Wise Men, p. 48.

2Bryce, A Legacy of Wisdom, pp. 58, 220. Bryce

proffers three stages: adapted (minor changes),

assimilated (major modifications), and integrated (little

of the original meaning).


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