95
REVIEW PAPER REVIJALNI RAD REVIEW PAPER REVIJALNI RAD REVIEW PAPER
HEPATORENAL SYNDROME:
ETIOPATHOGENESIS, DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT
Jelena Nešić
1
, Nenad Zornić
2
, Vesna Rosić
3
, Dejan Petrović
4
1
Clinic for Internal Medicine, Clinical Centre “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac
2
Department of anaesthesiology and reanimatology, Clinical Centre “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac
3
Department of Histology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, University of Kragujevac
4
Clinic for Urology and Nephrology, Clinical Centre “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac
HEPATORENALNI SINDROM:
ETIOPATOGENEZA, DIJAGNOZA I LEČENJE
Jelena Nešić
1
, Nenad Zornić
2
, Vesna Rosić
3
, Dejan Petrović
4
1
Klinika za internu medicine, KC “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac
2
Centar za anesteziologiju i reanimaciju, KC “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac
3
Katedra za Histologiju i embriologiju, Fakultet medicinskih nauka, Univerziteta u Kragujevcu
4
Klinika za urologiju i nefrologiju, KC “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac
Correspondence: Jelena Nešić MD, PhD, Clinic for Internal Medicine,
Clinical Centre “Kragujevac”, Kragujevac, Zmaj Jovina 30, 34000 Kragujevac
Phone: 0638215130, E-mail: jelenanesic1981@gmail.com
Received / Primljen: 17.12.2013
Accepted / Prihvaćen: 02.01.2014.
ABSTRACT
Hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) involves reversible renal
failure in patients with advanced cirrhosis or acute liver fail-
ure. Th
e aim of the study was to determine the pathogenetic
mechanisms of the development of hepatorenal syndrome
and to emphasise the clinical importance of early detec-
tion and timely treatment of patients with this condition.
Th
e one-year incidence rate of hepatorenal syndrome in pa-
tients with liver cirrhosis is 18-20%. Th
e risk factors for the
development of hepatorenal syndrome include the following:
spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, gastrointestinal bleeding,
nephrotoxic drugs, diuretics, non-steroidal anti-infl amma-
tory drugs, and hyponatraemia. Th
e primary plan of treat-
ment is a liver transplantation, while a secondary plan of
treatment is the use of a vasoconstrictor in conjunction with
albumin. Early diagnosis and prompt appropriate treatment
can signifi cantly reduce the mortality rate of patients with
hepatorenal syndrome.
Key words:
liver, kidney, risk factors, liver transplantation
SAŽETAK
Hepatorenalni sindrom (HRS) predstavlja reverzibilnu
bubrežnu insufi cijenciju kod bolesnika sa uznapredovalom
cirozom ili akutnom insufi cijencijom jetre . Cilj rada je da
utvrdi patogenetske mehanizme razvoja hepatorenalnog
sindroma i da ukaže na klinički značaj ranog otkrivanja i
pravovremenog lečenja bolesnika sa hepatorenalnim sindro-
mom. Jednogodisnja stopa hepatorenalnog sindroma kod
bolesnika sa cirozom jetre iznosi 18-20%. U faktore rizika za
nastanak hepatorenalnog sindroma spadaju: spontani bak-
terijski peritonitis, gastrointestinalno krvarenje, nefrotoksični
lekovi, diuretici, nesteroidni antiinfl amatorni lekovi, hipona-
triemija. Primarni plan lečenja je transplantacija jetre, dok
sekundarni plan lečenja je primena vazokonstriktora u kom-
binaciji sa albuminima. Rano dijagnostikovanje i pravovre-
mena primena odgovarajućeg lečenja znatno smanjuju stopu
smrtnosti bolesnika obolelih od hepatorenalnog sindroma.
Ključne reči:
jetra, bubreg, faktori rizika, transplant-
acija jetre
UDK: 616.36 ; 616.61-008.6 / Ser J Exp Clin Res 2014; 15 (2): 95-100
DOI: 10.2478/SJECR20140013
INTRODUCTION
Hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) refers to reversible re-
nal failure in patients with advanced cirrhosis or acute
liver failure (1-6). It can occur rapidly, over 48 hours,
or gradually, over a week or two (7-9). The incidence
of HRS in patients with cirrhosis of the liver is approxi-
mately 18-20% during the first year, and it increases to
39% after 5 years (10, 11). HRS may occur spontane-
ously. In half of the patients with HRS, one or more pre-
cipitating factors can scause HRS, including: bacterial
infection, particularly spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
(57%), gastrointestinal bleeding (36%) and therapeutic
paracentesis (7%)(10, 12). HRS is the most common
complication in patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites,
and there areits morbidity and mortality rates are high
(13-15). Only 3.5% of patients recover spontaneously
from hepatorenal syndrome (3).
ABBREVIATIONS
HRS
– hepatorenal syndrome
NO
– nitric oxide
RAAS
– renin - angiotensin - aldosterone system
SBP
– spontaneous bacterial peritonitis
TIPS
– transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt
96
Even if its pathogenesis is not fully explained, the main
etiological factor is renal hypoperfusion, which results
from vasodilatation and vascular resistance in the lesser
splanchnic region (4).
It is interesting that the histological appearance of the
kidneys is normal in hepatorenal syndrome, which makes
this syndrome a unique pathophysiological disorder of the
renal circulation in which there are no elements of mor-
phological kidney damage. Therefore, the renal insuffi-
ciency is reversible, and it occurs from functional disorder
of the circulation, rather than direct morphological kidney
damage, as evidenced by the fact that after liver transplan-
tation, kidney function returns to normal.
The type of HRS predominantly determines the out-
come and survival of patients. There are two types of
hepatorenal syndrome, type 1 and type 2; the two types
are pathophysiology similar, while the clinical features
and prognosis vary (16). Hepatorenal syndrome type 1
is characterised by rapid, progressive reduction of the
effective circulating volume, which is due to the extreme
intestinal arterial vasodilation and a decrease in the car-
diac output, which is usually preceded by spontaneous
bacterial peritonitis. Hepatorenal syndrome type 2 is
caused by a gradual and stable reduction of the glom-
erular filtration rate and it is common in patients with
relatively intact liver function. As defined by Salerno et
al, HRS type 1 is indicated by a laboratory increase in
the serum creatinine above 133 mmol/l (1.5 mg/dl) in
patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites in the absence of
hypovolemic shock, nephrotoxic drugs or primary kid-
ney disease. In type 2 HRS, the serum creatinine is dou-
bled (over 100%) compared to baseline to more than 221
mmol/l (2.5 mg/dl) (17, 18). The increase in the serum
creatinine can be acute (type 1 HRS) or gradual (type 2
HRS) (19).
Type 2 HRS is more common in clinical practice than
type 1 (20). The expected survival rate for type 1 HRS is
approximately 2 weeks, while this period is much longer,
approximately 6 months, in type 2 HRS (12). While the
survival of the patients with type 2 is considerably longer
than forthat of patients with type 1, it is still shorter than
for patients who do not have HRS.
Pathogenesis
Although HRS as a clinical entity was first described 50
years ago, the pathogenesis of this syndrome has not yet
been fully characterizised (21). HRS is the final stage of a
series of disturbances in the kidney and is accompanied by
deterioration of liver function and portal hypertension (21).
The main feature of hepatorenal syndrome is renal va-
soconstriction, although the pathogenesis of this process
has not been previously explained. A number of mecha-
nisms are associated with this syndrome, including in-
creased activity of systemic and renal vasoconstriction,
leading to reduced renal perfusion and a decrease in the
glomerular filtration rate. On the basis of the disturbance,
a vasodilation splanchnic circulation is expressed, re-
ducing the effective circulating volume and hypotension
with consequent activation of the sympathetic system,
renin-angiotensin system, and vasopressin (22). Entote-
lin, adenosine and leukotriene L4 also play an important
role in addition to being the main vasoconstrictors (renin
- angiotensin - aldosterone composition (RAAS) and the
sympathetic nervous system). All of these vasoconstrictors
lead to renal vasoconstriction. Local formation of kidney
vasodilators, mainly prostaglandins and nitric oxide (NO),
is weakened (12, 23, 24).
The splanchnic circulation is resistant to vasoconstric-
tors for the continuous production of local vasodilators
such as NO. In the splanchnic circulation, the creation of
vasodilators is maintained at a high level, and the response
to the effects of endogenous vasoconstrictor systems be-
comes weaker (1-6).
The clinical picture
HRS has non-specific symptoms and signs, which
makes early identification and diagnosis more difficult.
Because most patients with HRS have chronic liver dis-
ease, it is important to note the signs, including the fol-
lowing: palmar erythema, a leukonychia, asterixis, and
clubbing fingers (hand), icterus sclera, spider nevi, foetor
hepaticus, xanthelasma, and gynecomastia (head), caput
medusae, hepatosplenomegaly, ascites, and paraumbilical
herniation (abdomen), pubic hair loss and atrophic testes
(genitals), and, and peripheral oedema and clubbing fin-
gers (extremities).
The symptoms and signs of disease in HRS and chronic
liver diseases overlap, and they include the following: ar-
terial hypotension (middle arterial pressure values of ap-
proximately 80 mmHg or lower), oliguria, tachycardia,
jaundice, hepatic encephalopathy, and ascites (25).
In the final stage of HRS, the patient is comatose and
hypotensive with a urine output of less than 100 ml in 24
hours. In more than 80% of the patients, death occurs in a
few days to a maximum of 12 weeks (12, 21, 26). The cause
of death is a terminal defect of the liver cells rather than
renal failure (21).
Laboratory analyses show hyponatraemia, serum lev-
els below 130 mmol/l with an incidence of approximately
21.6% for HRS (27). Patients with liver cirrhosis and hy-
ponatraemia are at high risk of developing HRS (10). Sev-
eral studies have shown a positive correlation between
hyponatraemia and hepatic encephalopathy. A low level
of serum sodium and increased level of amonium lead to
major electroencephalographic changes, resulting in the
development of hepatic encephalopathy (28). Hyponatra-
emia predicts poor prognosis, and the median survival in
patients with liver transplantation is less than 6 months
(29). Hyponatraemia affects the patients’ quality of life. A
recent study has shown that a low level of Na
+
is an inde-
pendent predictive factor of the quality of life of patients
with cirrhosis (30).
97
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of the disease is sometimes extremely
difficult due to the lack of a specific test or pathognomonic
marker of the disease. The diagnosis of hepatorenal syn-
drome is based on the exclusion of other diseases that
reduce the rate of glomerular filtration in the absence of
other causes of chronic renal disease.
Table 1
Criteria for the diagnosis of HRS - Internation-
al Ascites Club -2007 (17):
• Cirrhosis of the liver with ascites
• Creatinine in the serum > 1.5 mg/dL (133 mmol/l)
• Absence of shock, absence of current or recently com-
pleted treatment with nephrotoxic drugs, absence of
parenchymal kidney disease and fluid loss
• No stable improvement in the renal function after at
least 2 days (48 h) (reduction of the serum creatinine
of less than 1.5 mg/dl or an increase in the creatinine
clearance of more than 40 ml/per min) after the com-
pletion of a diuretic and after the application of albu-
min and an intravenous (iv) solution (1 g/kg TT/a day
dose of albumin up to a maximum of 100 g/a day),
• Proteinuria of less than 500 mg per day
• Normal renal ultrasound findings
• The number of red blood cells in the urine is less than
50, and microhematuria
Risk factors
If there are precipitating factors that lead to the de-
velopment of HRS, it is necessary to eliminate them in a
timely fashion. These factors include spontaneous bac-
terial peritonitis, gastrointestinal bleeding, nephrotoxic
drugs, diuretics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs,
and hyponatraemia. The most important risk factor for
the development of HRS is bacterial infection, particu-
larly spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (31, 32). HRS de-
velops in approximately 30% of patients who have SBP
(31). The treatment of SBP includes infusion of albumin
and antibiotics, reducing the risk of developing HRS
and improving survival (31). Potassium-sparing diuret-
ics should be excluded from treatment to avoid hyper-
kalaemia (33).
Liver transplantation
Liver transplantation is the method of choice for type 1
and type 2 HRS; the survival rate is approximately 65% for
type 1 and 80% for type 2 (20, 34). A slightly lower survival
rate is noted compared to patients with cirrhosis without
HRS because of the presence of renal insufficiency, which
represents a major predictor of an unfavourable outcome
after liver transplantation (35, 36).
Over the past century, liver transplantation has been
successfully performed in only a few patients with HRS be-
cause most patients died before transplantation due to the
rapid disease progression in type 1 HRS.
In a prospective study of 15 patients with HRS type 1
who were candidates for transplantation, 12 patients had
contraindications to liver transplantation, and the remain-
ing three died while waiting for transplantation (37).
Without liver transplantation, the HRS prognosis is
unfavourable. A study was conducted on 68 type 1 HRS
patients who were candidates for a liver transplantation.
All patients were treated medically with various combina-
tions of the following: albumin, vasopressors, midodrine,
octreotide and haemodialysis. The results showed that the
median survival was 13 days for the entire group. Early
treatment can increase the survival rate of HRS (38).
The main problem with liver transplantation is the long
waiting time and short-term survival of these patients. The
one-year and four-year survival rates of patients with HRS
who undergo liver transplantation are 71% and 60%, whereas
in patients with liver transplantation without HRS, the one-
year and four-year survival rates are 83 and 70% (39). How-
ever, 10% of patients require dialysis after transplantation (1).
A new approach to the treatment is suggested, the so-
called “Treatment of bridge healing “, which is meant to re-
duce the number of patient deaths during the wait for liver
transplantation. The treatment of bridge healing “consists
of a combination of terlipressin 4-6 mg/a day with albumin,
which enables to bridge, that is to overcome the period of
waiting until liver transplantation” (40, 41). However, few
patients with HRS undergo transplantation.
The correction of renal hypovolaemia
Given that HRS lab values are similar to those observed
pre-renal azotaemia, previous attempts were made to be-
gin treating hypovolaemia with infusions (saline or dex-
tran). Because this form of treatment was not successful, it
was abandoned. Today, the main way that hypovolaemia is
corrected is by increasing albumin to 50 g/day in combina-
tion with administering vasoconstrictors (42).
Drug treatment
Many medications have been used to treat hepatorenal
syndrome in the past, but vasoconstrictors have had the-
best effects. These drugs cause vasoconstriction of blood
vessels of the splanchnic region and reperfusion of the
renal arteries (43, 44). The most common side effects of
treatment are cardiovascular or ischemic complications,
which occur with an average frequency of 12% in treated
patients (24, 45). Various types of studies have tested the
efficacy of vasoconstrictors.
A retrospective study was performed on 59 patients with
HRS type 1; after a combination of vasoconstrictor and al-
bumin was administered, there was a greater than 10 mmHg
increase in middle arterial pressure. The respondents had
improved treatment efficacy, a favourable response to liver
transplantation and a reduced need for dialysis. (46).
98
A meta-analysis of six randomised controlled studies
in which patients who had been on various vasoconstric-
tor drugs in combination with or without albumin were
monitored. The authors reported that mortality was re-
duced by 18% compared to the control groups of people
who did not undergo therapy with vasoconstrictors (15).
A meta-analysis of four randomised controlled studies
showed that patients who were treated with terlipressin
with or without albumin were 3.8 times more likely to re-
cover (heal) from HRS and 2 times more likely to have
improved renal function compared to patients who were
not treated with vasoconstrictors (15). Despite all of these
encouraging results regarding the use of vasoconstrictors
with or without albumin, these drugs are effective in re-
ducing mortality for 15 days, without significant effects at
1, 3, and 6 months. Vasoconstrictor therapy is effective in
46 to 48% of patients (15).
Vasoconstrictors are analogues to vasopressins (ex.
Terlipresin), analogues to somatostatins (Octreotide),
and agonists of the α-adrenergic receptors (Midodrine) in
combination with albumin infusion (43, 44) .
Terlipressin is the most effective and most widely used
vasoconstrictor. Terlipressin, vasopressin’s analogue, acts
on the two types of receptors, V1 and V2. V1 receptors are
found in the smooth muscles of blood vessels, and through
these receptors, vasopressin causes vasoconstriction. V2
receptors are found in the renal tubules, and, through
these receptors, this hormone acts as an antidiuretic. Ter-
lipressin has agonistic effects on V1 receptors and partial
agonistic effects on the renal V2 receptors. It affects the V1
receptors of the intestinal vasculature, causing dominant
vasoconstriction in the mesenteric circulation compared
to the renal arteries. However, its effects on the serum con-
centrations of Na are controversial. Terlipressin is most
commonly used in Europe because it reduces the chances
of ischemic complications.
Today, terlipressin, according to general recommenda-
tions, represents the most effective vasoconstrictor in the
treatment of HRS type 1. There are reports on the signifi-
cantly higher efficacy of combination therapy with terlip-
ressin and albumin (14, 45)., Although this combination is
also used in type 2 HRS, there is still limited information
on the use of terlipressin on these patients (47, 48).
The protocol for the treatment with terlipressin involves
an initial dose of 0.5 - 1 mg/4 - 6 h via i.v. or continuous i.v.
infusion 2 mg/day. If the creatinine level has not fallen by
25% on the third day of treatment, the dose is increased to
2 mg/4 h or 12 mg/day by continuous intravenous infusion.
In the case of failure to maintain a central venous pressure
of 10 - 15 mm H
2
O, the initial dose of albumin is 1 gr/kg for
two days up to a maximum 100 g/day (23).
Treatment continues until there is no improvement in
the laboratory values, which is normally not more than 2
weeks. In almost 59% of patients with type 1 HRS, there is
complete (reduction of serum creatinine < 133 mmol/l) or
partial (reduction of serum creatinine > 50% with values >
133 mmol/l) healing (49).
Alternative vasopressors are rarely used because they
have not been adequately investigated, and there are few
studies on these drugs (50).
Alpha-adrenergic agonists have an advantage over
terlipressin because their price is lower, but they are less
efficient. Midodrine is an alpha agonist with that has an
advantage of being the only agent that can be administered
orally (2.5 to 75 mg/8 h).
Norepinephrine is applied by continuous infusion at a
dose of 0.5 - 3 mg/h according to the level of arterial blood
pressure. Unfortunately, the number of patients treated
with noradrenaline is small, and there are no randomised
comparative studies for assessing its efficacy.
Previously, dopamine and prostaglandins were posited
as potential vasodilators in the literature, but their applica-
tion has not been accepted in clinical practice.
Transjugular intrahepatic
portosystemic shunt
A transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS)
is a percutaneously created connection within the liver pa-
renchyma between the portal and systemic circulation. A
TIPS is set to reduce the portal pressure in patients with
complications that are associated with portal hypertension.
The aim of a TIPS placement is to redirect the blood
flow in the hepatic veins, reducing the pressure gradient
between the portal and systemic circulation.
According to currentthe present study, the use of a
TIPS is effective in the treatment of ascites and leads to
improvement in renal function. It can be used as a bridge
therapy while patients are waiting for a liver transplanta-
tion (51, 52).
CONCLUSION
HRS is one of the most serious complications of liver
disease and is most common in patients with decompen-
sated liver cirrhosis. The survival time of these patients
is short, and spontaneous recovery is very rare. The only
therapy for HRS is liver transplantation. The aim of new
studies will be the search for better diagnostic and thera-
peutic procedures.
Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to express
their deepest gratitude to the Serbian Ministry of Science and
Technological Development for Grant NO175014, which was
one of the sources of financial support for this study.
REFERENCES
1. Dagher L, Moore K. The hepatorenal syndrome. Gut
2001;49(5): 729–37.
2. Arroyo V, Torre A, Guevara M. Recent advances in he-
patorenal syndrome. Trop Gastroenterol 2005; 26(1):
13–20.
99
3. Barada K. Hepatorenal syndrome: pathogenesis and
novel pharmacological targets. Curr Opin Pharmacol
2004; 4(2):189–97.
4. Arroyo V, Guevara M, Gines P. Hepatorenal syndrome
in cirrhosis: pathogenesis and treatment. Gastroenter-
ology 2002; 122(6): 1658–76.
5. Blaise P, Moonen M, Rorive G. Update on hepatorenal
syndrome. Nephrologie 2002; 23(1): 11–7. (French)
6. Kramer L, Horl WH. Hepatorenal syndrome. Semin
Nephrol 2002; 22(4): 290–301.
7. Biswas KD, Jain AK. Hepatorenal syndrome. Review.
Tropical Gastroenterology 2002; 23(3):113-6.
8. Gentilini P, Vizzutti F, Gentilini A, Zipoli M, Foschi
M, Romanelli RG. Update on ascites and hepatorenal
syndrome. Review. Digestive & Liver Disease 2002;
34(8):592-605.
9. Arroyo V, Gines P, Gerbes AL, Dudley FJ, Gentilini P,
Laffi G. Definition and diagnostic criteria of refractory
ascites and hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Interna-
tional Ascites Club. Hepatology 1996; 23:164-76.
10. Ginès A, Escorsell A, Ginès P, Saló J, Jiménez W, Inglada
L, Navasa M, Clària J, Rimola A, Arroyo V. Incidence,
predictive factors, and prognosis of the hepatorenal
syndrome in cirrhosis with ascites. Gastroenterology.
1993;105:229–236.
11. Garcia-Tsao G, Parikh CR, Viola A: Acute kidney injury
in cirrhosis. Hepatology 2008; 48: 2064–2077.
12.
Gines P, Guevara M, Arroyo V, Rodes J. Hepatorenal
syndrome. Lancet 2003; 362(9398): 1819–27.
13. Cholongitas E, Senzolo M, Patch D, Shaw S, O’Beirne
J, Burroughs AK: Cirrhotics admitted to intensive care
unit: the impact of acute renal failure on mortality. Eur
J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2009; 21: 744–750.
14. Gines P: Pharmacological management of hepatorenal
syndrome: lessons from non-responders. J Hepatol
2011; 55: 268–269.
15. Gluud LL, Christensen K, Christensen E, Krag A: Sys-
tematic review of randomized trials on vasoconstrictor
drugs for hepatorenal syndrome. Hepatology 2010; 51:
576–584.
16. Petrović D.Hepato-renalni sindrom: etiopatogeneza,
dijagnostika I lečenje. U: Akutno oštećenje bubrega u
kliničkoj praksi. Petrović D.Ed.Kragujevac:Interprint
2013:277-84
17. Salerno F, Gerbes A, Gines P, Wong F, Arroyo V: Di-
agnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syn-
drome in cirrhosis. Gut 2007;56: 1310–1318.
18. Alessandria C, Ozdogan O, Guevara M, Restuccia T,
Jimenez W, Arroyo V, Rodes J, Gines P: Meld score
and clinical type predict prognosis in hepatorenal syn-
drome: relevance to liver transplantation. Hepatology
2005; 41: 1282–1289.
19.
Moreau R, Lebrec D. Acute renal failure in patients with
cirrhosis: perspectives in the age of MELD. Hepatology.
2003;16:233–243.
20. Angeli P, Morando F, Cavallin M, Piano S. Hepatorenal
syndrome. Contrib Nephrol. 2011;174:46–55.
21.
Cardenas A, Gines P, Rodes J. Renal complications. In:
Schiff ER, Sorrekk MF, Maddrey WC, editors. Schiff
’s Diseases of the Liver. Philadelphia: Lippincott Wil-
liams & Wilkins: A Wolters Kluwer Company; 2003.
p.497-509
22. Petrović D.Akutno oštećenje bubrega; etiologija, di-
jagnostika i lečenje. Medicinska istraživanja 2011;
45(3):7-13
23. Nadim MK, Kellum JA, Davenport A, Wong F, Davis
C, Pannu N, Tolwani A, Bellomo R, Genyk Y. Hepator-
enal syndrome: the 8
th
International Consensus Confer-
ence of the Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative Group. Crit
Care. 2012;16:R23.
24. Gines P, Schrier RW. Renal failure in cirrhosis. N Engl J
Med. 2009;16:1279–1290.
25. Angeli P, Wong F, Watson H. Hyponatremia in cirrho-
sis: results of a patient population survey. Hepatology.
2006;44:1535–1542.
26. Sherlock S, Dooley J. Ascites. In: Sherlock S, Dooley J,
editors. Diseases of the Liver and Biliary System. 11th
ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing Company; 2002.
p.127-46.
27. Gines P, Berl T, Bernardi M. Hyponatremia in cir-
rhosis: from pathogenesis to treatment. Hepatology.
1998;28:851–864
28. Amodio P, Del Piccolo F, Petteno E. Prevalence and prog-
nostic value of quantified electroencephalogram altera-
tions in cirrhotic patients. J Hepatol. 2001;35:37–45.
29. Heuman DM, Abou–Assi SG, Habib A. Persistent as-
cites and low serum sodium identify patients with cir-
rhosis and low MELD scores who are at high risk for
early death. Hepatology. 2004;40:802–810.
30. Konstam MA, Ghiorghiade M, Burnett JC Jr. Effects
of oral tolvaptan in patients hospitalized for worsen-
ing heart failure: the EVEREST Outcome Trial. LAMA
2007;297:1319–1331.
31. Sort P, Navasa M, Arroyo V, Aldeguer X, Planas R, Ruiz
del Arbol L, et al. Effect of intravenous albumin on re-
nal impairment and mortality in patients with cirrhosis
and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. N Engl J Med
1999;341:403–409.
32. Fasolato S, Angeli P, Dallagnese L, Maresio G, Zola E,
Mazza E, et al. Renal failure and bacterial infections in
patients with cirrhosis: epidemiology and clinical fea-
tures. Hepatology 2007;45:223–229.
33. Lukić S, Petrović D. Prevencija akutnog oštećenja bu-
brega u jedinicama intenzivnog lečenja. Med Čas 2012;
46(2):100-4.
34. Gonwa TA, Morris CA, Goldstein RM, Husberg BS,
Klintmalm GB. Long-term survival and renal function
following liver transplantation in patients with and
without hepatorenal syndrome – experience in 300 pa-
tients. Transplantation 1991;51:428–430.
35. Lafayette RA, Paré G, Schmid CH, King AJ, Rohrer RJ,
Nasraway SA. Pretransplant renal dysfunction predicts
poorer outcome in liver transplantation. Clin Nephrol.
1997;48:159–164.
100
36. Gonwa TA, Klintmalm GB, Levy M, Jennings LS, Gold-
stein RM, Husberg BS. Impact of pretransplant renal
function on survival after liver transplantation. Trans-
plantation. 1995;59:361–365.
37. Schepke M, Appenrodt B, Heller J, Zielinski J, Sauer-
bruch T. Prognostic factors for patients with cirrhosis
and kidney dysfunction in the era of MELD: results of a
prospective study. Liver Int 2006;26:834–839.
38. Olivera-Martinez M, Sayles H, Vivekanandan R, D’
Souza S, Florescu MC. Hepatorenal syndrome: are
we missing some prognostic factors? Dig Dis Sci 2012
57(1):210-4.
39. Le Moine O. Hepatorenal syndrome – outcome after
liver transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998;
13(1):20–2.
40. Piano S, Morando F, Fasolato S, Cavallin M, Boscato N,
Boccagni P, Zanus G, Cillo U, Gatta A, Angeli P. Con-
tinuous recurrence of type 1 hepatorenal syndrome and
long-term treatment with terlipressin and albumin: a
new exception to MELD score in the allocation system
to liver transplantation? J Hepatol. 2011;55:491–496.
41. Caraceni P, Santi L, Mirici F, Montanari G, Bevilacqua
V, Pinna AD, Bernardi M. Long-term treatment of he-
patorenal syndrome as a bridge to liver transplantation.
Dig Liver Dis. 2011;43:242–245
42. Saló J, Ginès A, Quer JC, Fernández-Esparrach G,
Guevara M, Ginès P, Bataller R, Planas R, Jiménez W,
Arroyo V, et al. Renal and neurohormonal changes
following simultaneous administration of systemic
vasoconstrictors and dopamine or prostacyclin in cir-
rhotic patients with hepatorenal syndrome. J Hepatol
1996;25:916–923.
43. European Association for the Study of the Liver: EASL
clinical practice guidelines on the management of as-
cites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and hepatorenal
syndrome in cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2010; 53: 397–417.
44. Runyon BA: Management of adult patients with ascites due
to cirrhosis: an update. Hepatology 2009; 49: 2087–2107.
45.
Moreau R, Lebrec D. The use of vasoconstrictors in pa-
tients with cirrhosis: type 1 HRS and beyond. Hepatol-
ogy 2006;43:385–394.
46. Maddukuri G, Cai CX, Munigala S, Mohammadi F,
Zhang Z. Targeting an Early and Substantial Increase in
Mean Arterial Pressure Is Critical in the Management
of Type 1 Hepatorenal Syndrome: A Combined Retro-
spective and Pilot Study.Dig Dis Sci 2013.
47. Martin L, Lahi M, Pepin MN, Guevara M, et al. Terli-
pressin and albúmina vs albúmina in patients with cir-
rhosis and hepatorenal syndrome: a randomized study.
Gastroenterology 2008;134:1352–1359.
48. Alessandria C, Venon WD, Marzano A, Barletti C,
Fadda M, Rizzetto M. Renal failure in cirrhotic pa-
tients: role of terlipressin in clinical approach to hepa-
torenal syndrome type 2. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol
2002;47:401–404.
49. Rajekar H, Chawla Y. Terlipressin in hepatorenal syn-
drome: Evidence for present indications. J Gastroen-
terol Hepatol. 2011;26 Suppl 1:109–114.
50. Wong F, Pantea L, Sniderman K. Midodrine, oct-
reotide, albumin, and TIPS in selected patients with
cirrhosis and type 1 hepatorenal syndrome. Hepatology
2004;40:55–64.
51. Rössle M, Gerbes AL. TIPS for the treatment of refrac-
tory ascites, hepatorenal syndrome and hepatic hy-
drothorax: a critical update. Gut 2010;59:988–1000.
52. Testino G, Ferro C, Sumberaz A, Messa P, Morelli N,
Guadagni B, Ardizzone G, Valente U. Type-2 hepa-
torenal syndrome and refractory ascites: role of tran-
sjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stent-shunt in
eighteen patients with advanced cirrhosis awaiting or-
thotopic liver transplantation. Hepatogastroenterology
2003;50:1753–1755.
Dostları ilə paylaş: |