Stress management skills module



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STRESS
MANAGEMENT
MODULE
Background Information

Generic Skills Integration Project (GENSIP)

Student Counselling Service & Staff Development

University of Dublin

Trinity College

Compiled by Tamara O’Connor
January 2003
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Objectives 3
Introduction 3


  1. About Stress




    1. Definition and Model 4

    1. Optimal Level Of Stress 5

    2. Signs or symptoms of stress 6

      1. Physical and Behavioural

      2. Cognitive

      3. Emotional

    3. Demands and Resources 7

      1. Sources of Stress

      2. Resources



Suggestions for Integration 9

Suggested Presentation 10
2. Managing Stress



    1. Coping With Stress

      1. Types of Coping 11

      2. Coping Resources 12

        1. Cognitive Coping Strategies 12

        2. Behavioural Coping Strategies 14

      3. Performance Under Stress 15

    2. Foundation for Lifelong Health – Reducing Long

Term Stress

      1. Health, Nutrition and Exercise 16

      2. Lifestyle 16

      3. Attitude 17


Suggestions for Integration 17

Suggested Presentation 18


  1. Summary 20

References and Bibliography 21





Objectives

This module is designed for use by academic staff who want to help students develop their ability to cope with stress. It provides information and strategies for use by students, but it also includes suggestions for incorporating aspects into the teaching of the subject content. For example, business students studying management could examine stress management in terms of occupational stressors.


The goal of this module is to help academic staff give their students a better awareness and understanding of stress. Furthermore, it is designed to provide coping strategies for avoiding distress and to promote better adjustment to college.


Introduction



Stress is a routine part of our lives. Certain amounts of stress are beneficial; however, sometimes the level of stress can become burdensome. Students in university experience many changes. There is research, Irish as well as international, to indicate college can be a stressful experience for students

(Aherne, 2001; Fisher, 1994; Tyrrell, 1993). Being able to manage and control stress is a useful skill, for life as a student but also for life beyond university. Stress management can be taught on a personal as well as a professional basis.

The material in this module can be used as a stand alone - given in addition to regular courses. However, it can also be incorporated into course content when suitable.


Each section gives the presenter some Background Information on the area to be addressed as well as Suggestions for Integration of the material with subject material. There is also a Suggested Presentation if the teacher wants to present the material as a workshop. It includes suggested activities and procedures, materials necessary and time estimates. The module also contains a PowerPoint presentation with slides and notes, as well as exercises and handouts. The teacher may be selective – using parts or all of the module sections – or he/she may customise, alter or add to the module.



  1. ABOUT STRESS

“One of the difficulties about stress is that it can work for you or against you, just like a car tire. When the pressure in the tire is right, you can drive smoothly along the road: if it is too low, you feel all the bumps and the controls feel sluggish. If it is too high, you bounce over the potholes, and easily swing out of control” (Butler & Hope, 1995, p. 207).


AIM

To help students learn more about the causes and implications of stress.


To help students become aware of the signs and symptoms of stress early, to prevent chronic stress.
To help students identify potential sources of stress and to develop an awareness that they can cope with the stress in their lives.
To help students identify their own optimal level of stress.
















1.1 Definition
Stress is a normal, universal human experience.
Eustress, or good stress, is stress that benefits our health, like physical exercise or getting a promotion. Distress on the other hand, is stress that harms our health and often results from imbalances between demands made upon us and our resources for dealing with these demands. The latter is what most people think about when they talk about stress. However, if handled well stress can increase motivation and stimulate us.
There are many different definitions and theories of stress. However, a commonly recognised one is the interactionist model of stress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). It suggests there are three key components involved:


    • The situation and demands

    • Our subjective appraisal of the situation

    • Our perceived resources for meeting the demands

These demands or situations could include financial problems, arguments, changes in school/work circumstances, etc. These are events, hassles or changes that occur in our external environment that may be physical or psychological. They are sometimes referred to as stressors.


Appraisal of the situation refers to how we interpret the situation or demand. For example, an event occurs. Person A may see it as stressful while Person B does not. Thus Person A will probably have a reaction to the stressful situation, either physiological or emotional.
Resources refer to our ability to cope with the demand or stressor, for dealing with possible or real problems. Again, an event occurs, Person A and Person B both perceive it as stressful, but Person A believes she has the resources to cope but Person B believes she doesn’t, and they will respond accordingly.
While students may not be able to control some of the demands placed upon them, they can change the resources at their disposal by increasing their repertoire of coping strategies.



    1. Optimal Level of Stress

Everyone has an ideal level of stress, but it differs from person to person. Basically, if there’s not enough stress then performance may suffer, due to lack of motivation or boredom (See Figure 1). However, too much stress results in a drop in performance as a result of stress related problems like inability to concentrate or illness.


We must learn to monitor our stress levels, firstly to identify our own optimum level of stress and secondly to learn when we must intervene to increase or decrease our level of stress. This way stress works for us. By managing stress we can improve our quality of life and do a better job, either in academic life or professional life.
If stress is not handled properly it can increase the negative consequences for an individual.



    1. Signs and Symptoms of stress

People will have their own personal signs or reactions to stress, which they should learn to identify. They generally fall into three categories: physical, cognitive and emotional. Many of these symptoms come and go as a result of short-term stress. However, symptoms that are associated with more long-term, sustained stress can be harmful. Consequences can include fatigue, poor morale and ill health. High levels of stress without intervention or management can contribute to mental health problems (e.g. depression, anxiety, interpersonal difficulties), behavioural changes (e.g. increased alcohol intake, drug abuse, appetite disorders) and sometimes involve medical consequences (e.g. headaches, bowel problems, heart disease, etc.). Some of these signs are listed below.




      1. Physical (physiological and behavioural)




    • Racing heart

    • Cold, sweaty hands

    • Headaches

    • Shallow or erratic breathing

    • Nausea or upset tummy

    • Constipation

    • Shoulder or back pains

    • Rushing around

    • Working longer hours

    • Losing touch with friends

    • Fatigue

    • Sleep disturbances

    • Weight changes

There is are well established links between stress and many types of illness. However, these physical symptoms could result from medical or physiological problems rather than be completely stress related. Medical advice should be sought whenever someone believes he or she may have an illness, e.g. chest pain or weight changes.




      1. Cognitive (or Thoughts)




    • Forgetting things

    • Finding it hard to concentrate

    • Worrying about things

    • Difficulty processing information

    • Negative self-statements




      1. Emotional (or Feelings)




    • Increased irritability or anger

    • Anxiety or feelings of panic




    • Fear

    • Tearfulness

    • Increased interpersonal conflicts

Everyone has developed his or her own response to stress. The key is to learn to monitor your own signs and become aware of when they are indicating the stress level is unmanageable.



1.4 Demands and Resources
1.4.1 Demands
The demands or stressors we experience can come from internal or external sources.
External sources of stress are the demands or pressures from job or college, demands of family or friends, physical or environmental factors (noise, caffeine). Recent changes can also be stressful events. For example, looking for a job, moving, trying to find accommodation, holidays, and so forth.
Some common stressors for college students include the transition to college, academic concerns (difficulty with material, lack of motivation), time pressures, financial concerns, family (conflict with parents); social (loneliness), or developmental tasks of late adolescent/early adulthood (moving from dependence to autonomy, establishing identity).
Internal sources of stress result from our reactions to these demands and the demands we put on ourselves. For example, if you feel there are many demands, and not enough resources to cope then you may feel stressed. You may tell yourself “There’s just too much to do.” Our own wants, feelings and attitudes can also create stress. For example, when we want to do a perfect job, or expecting others to be as motivated as ourselves. A student’s sense of adequacy or confidence may also influence how they experience stress (Aherne, 2001).
1.4.2 Resources
These refer to our ability to cope with the stressors, either by our appraisal or by our strategies for dealing with them.
Coping Resources. We can reduce the external demands. For example if the demand causing stress is financial concerns, then finding sources of funds or making a budget would be a resource for coping. Alternatively, we can reduce the internal stressors, for example changing our attitude or perception. Or we can do both. There is more information and examples about improving coping resources under Section 2. Managing Stress.
In addition to coping resources, there are some indications that personality characteristics interact with stressors and coping resources. For example, “attachment style” may influence how comfortable people are in seeking support. People who feel comfortable seeking the support of friends or tutors are often better able to cope; people who don’t seek support are more likely to cope with stress by avoiding demands, which can cause trouble later on. Thus how secure one is about relationships may indicate which coping resources will be most useful (Lopez & Brennan, 2000). For students, especially young adults, seeking to establish their independence, asking for help may be seen as a weakness.

Social support is also a significant factor in enabling people to effectively manage their stress. It refers to our sense of belonging, being loved and accepted. Social support interacts with stress to offer people a buffer from the negative effects of stress (Brotheridge, 2001). Social support may elicit an appraisal of events as less stressful, may inhibit dysfunctional coping behaviors, or may facilitate more adaptive coping behaviours (Cohen & Wills, 1985). This is one reason why it is important for students to integrate into the academic community and establish relationships with other students, academic and support staff.




Suggestions for Integration

For literature subjects:




    • Think of characters’ responses to stress and how they typify universal human behaviours

For social science subjects:




    • How is stress reflected in a group?

    • How is stress reflected in an individual?

    • How is stress reflected in a culture?

For business/management subjects:




    • How does stress affect profitability via absenteeism and underperformance?

    • Human resource implications

    • Occupational stress and burnout

For engineering subjects:




    • What causes stress in a system or structure?

    • Any parallels to the body as a system with components all mutually impacting on each other?

For science subjects:




    • More detail on the psychophysiology of stress and the relationship between stress and illness

For professional subjects:



In general:


Whenever there are particularly stressful times in your department (e.g. exam time, assignments due, etc.) maybe have a discussion about stressors and ways of coping.


SUGGESTED PRESENTATION


About Stress

Time Commitment

30 – 40 minutes



Materials

Exercise – Performance Quiz

Why Learn About Stress (Slide 2)

Stress Model (Slide 3)

Optimal Level of Stress (Slide 4)

Signs or Symptoms of Stress (Slide 5 - 7)

Exercise - Stress Test

Demands and Resources (Slide 8)

Exercise - How do I respond to stress?

Example of Stress Diary



Activities and Procedures

Step 1 Optional - Have students complete some form of performance quiz (see Exercise – Performance Quiz). Ask students how they reacted – what were their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Alternatively, ask them to describe how they feel when under pressure.


Step 2 Discuss benefits of knowing about stress (Slide 2).
Step 3 Explain the Transactional model of stress and definition (Slide 3).
Step 4 Explain optimal level of stress using graph (Slide 4). Discuss how to identify own level by keeping a stress diary.
Step 5 Go over signs of stress with students (Slide 5, 6, 7).

Step 6 Optional – Have students complete a stress questionnaire. Emphasise the importance of being able to identify own particular early warning signs of stress in order to activate coping.


Step 7 Explain what demands/stressors and resources are (Slide 8; also refer to Slide 3.)
Step 8 To help students identify and learn about their own optimal level, have a discussion about possible stressors. Ask students to offer relevant example or have students generate examples about when they have handled stress well or performed well under stress versus when this didn’t happen. (See Exercise – How I respond to stress).



  1. MANAGING STRESS


2.1 Coping With Stress
“The breadth of coping resources students have at their disposal can be a determinant of the degree of success and satisfaction they experience at college” (Baird, 2001, p.3).

AIM
To help students learn to control or manage stress they may experience.
To provide students with a range of coping strategies.
To allow students the opportunity to practice coping strategies.
To encourage students to lay the foundations for a healthy life style that reduces stress.

The three components of stress are the:




  • Situation and its demands,

  • Subjective appraisal of the situation and

  • Perceived resources for coping with the demands.

Management of stress can be aimed at any or all of these components. In other words, we can decrease the external demands or stressors; we can change or appraisals or we can increase our coping resources.




      1. Types of Coping.

Coping refers to the use of strategies to deal with problems, real or anticipated, and any possible negative emotions that may arise. This approach helps us to control our reactions to the demands placed upon us. We use actions, thoughts and feelings to cope.


Different situations or stressors call for different kinds of coping.
Problem-Focused Coping is aimed at changing a situation or its accompanying demands. It is most appropriate when you have some control over a situation or when you can manage the problem in the environment. It uses specific activities to accomplish a task.
For example, maybe a student is having difficulties with a roommate who creates a lot of distractions thus preventing the student from studying. Problem-focused coping would involve the student negotiating a contract or using other problem-solving strategies to overcome the stressful situation. Using time management or seeking advice are other examples of this type of coping.
Emotion-Focused Coping is aimed at dealing with the emotions caused by a situation and its demands. It is more appropriate when you have little or no control over a situation. This type of coping involves reducing anxiety associated with the stressful situation without addressing the problem. For example, in parental separation a student has no control over it but he/she could cope with any anxiety the event may cause.
Sometimes people employ strategies to relieve stress that are short-term, and may actually contribute to stress – such as drinking or taking drugs, blaming others, avoidance or overeating.
Many of the situations college students face are best coped with by a combination of problem- and emotion-focused coping. In general flexibility, adaptation and persistence are crucial to success.
Research conducted at Trinity College Dublin found an inverse relationship between believing one has adequate coping resources and the degree of depression and adjustment students report (Baird, 2001). Therefore increasing the coping resources of students will likely contribute to a better college experience for students.


      1. Coping Resources

These resources can broadly be divided into:




  • cognitive coping strategies and

  • physical / behavioural coping strategies.

Some of these coping strategies will suit some people, others will not. The key is to have a range of resources that can be applied, depending upon the situation and the individual. It is important to have strategies one is comfortable using.





        1. Cognitive coping strategies

These refer to ways of dealing with stress using our minds. Cognitive coping strategies are a good way to combat stress-producing thoughts. As Shakespeare’s Hamlet said, “. . . for there is nothing either good or bad but thinking makes it so. . .” Often people already use these cognitive ways of coping, but making them more conscious will increase their efficiency and effectiveness. Examples of these strategies are:




  • Reframing – focus on the good not the bad; think in terms of wants instead of shoulds. It’s best if our thinking is related to our goals. For example, “I want to read and understand this chapter in Chemistry so I do well in my lab practical” instead of “I have to read this difficult chapter in Chemistry”.




  • Challenging negative thinking – stopping the negative thoughts we may have about a situation or ourselves. Examples of negative thoughts include expecting failure, putting yourself down, feelings of inadequacy - a thought such as “Everyone else seems to understand this except me.”

In order to gain control of negative thoughts or worries, you must first become aware of them. Next, yell “Stop!” to yourself when they occur. Try replacing with positive affirmations or at least challenge or question any irrationality of the thoughts.




  • Positive self-talk – using positive language and statements to ourselves. These are sometimes referred to as positive affirmations; they are useful for building confidence and challenging negative thoughts. For example, “I can do this or understand this” or “I’ll try my best”. These work best when they are realistic and tailored to your needs and goals.




  • Count to ten – this allows you time to gain control and perhaps rethink the situation or come up with a better coping strategy.




  • Cost-benefit analysis – asking yourself questions about the worth of thinking, feeling or acting a particular way. “Is it helping me to get things done when I think this way?” “Is it worth getting upset over?” “Am I making the best use of my time?”




  • Smell the roses“Experiencing life as fully as possible requires conscious effort, since we become habituated to things which are repeated. Varying our experiences (such as taking different routes to school or work) can help in this process” (Greenberg, 1987, p. 129).




  • Keeping perspective – when under stress it is easy to lose perspective; things can seem insurmountable. Some questions to ask yourself: Is this really a problem? Is this a problem anyone else has had? Can I prioritise the problems? Does it really matter?

Look on the bright side of life!” - Cultivate optimism.


  • Reducing uncertainty – seek any information or clarification you may require to reduce the uncertainty. It helps to ask in a positive way. Situations that are difficult to classify, are obscure or have multiple meanings can create stress.




  • Using imagery/visualisation –imagining yourself in a pleasant or a successful situation to help reduce stress. One way to use imagery is as a relaxation tool; try to remember the pleasure of an experience you’ve had or a place you’ve been. The more senses you involve in the image the more realistic, therefore the more powerful. This strategy is often combined with deep breathing or relaxation exercises.

Visualisation can also be used as a rehearsal strategy for an anticipated stressful event. For example, if you have a presentation to give, practice it in the mind a few times, picturing the audience’s reaction and even visualising yourself overcoming any potential pitfalls.



2.1.2.2 Behavioural coping strategies
These refer to ways of dealing with stress by doing something or taking action to reduce the stress experienced. Examples of these strategies are:


  • Physical exercise – aerobic exercise is the most beneficial strategy for reducing stress. It releases neurochemicals in the brain that aid concentration. For some people, even a short walk is sufficient to relieve stress.




  • Relaxation – from simple relaxation such as dropping the head forward and rolling it gently from side to side or simply stretching, to more complex progressive relaxation exercises. Progressive relaxation involves tensing and releasing isolated muscle groups until muscles are relaxed. Please refer to Handout – Five Minute Relaxation. There are also tapes and books available on this topic (available from the Student Counselling Service or the library).




  • Breathing – from simple deep breaths to more complex breathing exercises related to relaxation and meditation. Please refer to Handout – Deep Breaths.







  • Time management – specific strategies such as clarifying priorities, setting goals, evaluating how time is spent, developing an action plan, overcoming procrastination and organising time. These help us to cope with the numerous demands placed upon us, often a source of stress. (See also the Learning Skills Module).




  • Social Support/Friends – encourage the development and nurturing of relationships. There is an association between good social support and a reduced risk of drop out (Tinto, 1998).




  • Seek Help – to help us cope with unmanageable stress. This is a sign of taking control, not of weakness. There are many supports available in College for students including Student Health Service, Student Counselling Service, College Tutors and the Chaplaincy.

More detail on many of these strategies may be found in the pamphlet on Making Stress Work for You, produced by the Student Health Service and the handout Coping with Stress by the Student Counselling Service.


Web addresses:
www.tcd.ie/Student_Counselling/

www.tcd.ie/Student_Health/

www.tcd.ie/Chaplaincy/


2.1.3 Performance Under Stress
Most people find performance stressful, whether examination, interview, public speaking, practicals, etc. However, they need not cause distress. The following tips for managing the stress experienced as a result of performance situations can help students achieve their goals.


  • Focussing on the process not the outcome.

  • Being aware of the stress/performance curve and their own optimal level of stress.

  • Learning and practicing coping skills – practice is important.

  • Reframing evaluative situations – a learning experience.

  • Keeping and using a sense of humour

  • Maintaining one’s perspective

  • Remembering that mistakes are part of learning

  • Separating self-worth from performance



    1. Foundations for Lifelong Health –

Reducing Long Term Stress
For long-term management of stress, it is important to lay good foundations. Often when we are under stress, we ignore our health and relationships, yet when these are poor it can add to our stress. Avoid this cycle!
2.2.1 Health, Nutrition and Exercise
There is good evidence to support the idea that proper diet and exercise is the most effective way to protect us from the long-term effects of stress. Regular exercise, even of short duration, improves the functioning of the body (muscles, lungs, etc.) as well as psychological functioning (better concentration, feeling good about self, etc.). Even 30 minutes cumulative daily moderate exercise improves health.
An excess intake of certain foods can encourage stress symptoms. Items that contain stimulants such as nicotine or caffeine affect the sympathetic nervous system which can bring on stress responses such as irritability or jitteriness. To help manage stress it is important to limit our intake of caffeine (coke, coffee, tea, chocolate) and large amounts of sugar in a short time span. Like exercise, regular meals are the key; skipping meals is not a healthy option.
Sometimes people try to cope with the symptoms of stress rather than dealing with the stress itself. For example, using alcohol to relax or taking sleeping tablets to help with sleeplessness.
Students are particularly prone to poor nutrition and exercise, especially around exam time when caffeine intake increases, sleep patterns change and meals become even more irregular.

2.2.2 Lifestyle
We make choices everyday that affect our health. How we get to college or work, what we eat, what we do with our free time - all of these choices will have an impact. We probably all know someone who we think of as being “stressed out” – we may even avoid being around these people because they make us uncomfortable. In contrast, we also probably know someone who seems more able to just “go with the flow” and minimise the amount of stress in people’s lives. Think about the differences in people you know – what seems to be a healthy, balanced approach to life?
To prevent being caught up in the vicious cycle of stress, which leads to even higher levels of stress, you need: rest, to renew your energy; recreation, to provide you with pleasure and fulfilment; and relationships, as a source of support and perspective” (Butler & Hope, 1995, p. 217).
In general, aim to make lifestyle decisions that attempt to eliminate distresses, modify stressful behaviours and increase healthy behaviours.

2.2.3 Attitude
We have control over our attitudes, unlike some other aspects of our life. We create, to a large extent, our reality through our expectations (self-fulfilling prophecy) and we can also change our physiology with our thinking. New research (Lyubomirsky, 2001) shows that motivation and evaluation of life circumstances can be modified with resulting improvement in positive affect and performance. This suggests that learning what motivates us then using it to improve our attitude will result in better life situations.
In other words, unhelpful attitudes can increase the burdens and pressures we experience – thinking things like: “I have to get this done” or “I shouldn’t ask for help”. Healthier alternatives would be “I will do as much as I can in the allowed time” or “Everyone asks for help sometimes” (Butler & Hope, 1995, p. 216).
We spend a lot of time relating to other people which can at times be satisfying or stressful. However, relationships can provide great support to help us deal with the stress in our lives. There are several factors to “forming harmonious relationships with other people - take a positive approach, project a positive image, be assertive, pay compliments where they are due (but be sincere), try to leave people pleased to have spoken to you” (Mind Tools, 1995).



Suggestions for Integration
There are many opportunities to tailor this section to course material. For example, science of nutrition and health, body as a system, costs of ill health to business, issues of burnout, etc.


  • Making stress work for business, i.e. optimal stress

  • Helping patients manage stress to aid recovery

  • The use of stress management to assist treatment






SUGGESTED PRESENTATION

Managing Stress

Time Commitment
45 – 50 minutes (or longer depending on how many examples and exercises are practiced).
Materials
Coping – Different Situations, Different Coping (Slide 9 &10)

Exercise – Sorting of situations, reactions and coping resources

Examples of different types of coping

Cognitive Coping Strategies (Slide 11 -13)

Exercise – Creating Affirmations or I am Grateful

Behavioural Coping Strategies (Slide 14 -15)

Time Management Strategies (Slide 16 -17)

Summary of Coping (Slide 18)

Relaxation– Optional (Slide 19)

Exercise – Deep Breath

Exercise – Short Relaxation

Exercise – Body Scan



Activities and Procedures
Step 1 Explain types of coping – problem-focussed and emotion-focussed (Slide 9 & 10). Give and ask for examples.
Step 2 Optional. Do Exercise – Sorting situations, etc. Have students break into small groups. Each group is given cards containing statements that they must divide into three categories: stressful situations or demands, stress reactions and coping resources.
Step 3 Explain cognitive coping strategies (Slide 11 -13). Try to use examples relevant to course.
Step 4 Ask students to create 3 positive affirmations for themselves. Use Creating Positive Affirmations or I am Grateful exercise.
Step 5 Explain behavioural coping strategies (Slide 14 -15).
Step 6 Describe time management strategies (Slide 16 -17). Allow students to discuss if they’ve tried any of these and if they were effective or not. This would be a good opportunity to relate them to coursework. Practice goal setting, breaking tasks down or completing a timetable.
Step 7 Summarise (Slide 18).
Step 8 Practice! Try Deep Breath Exercise or Short Relaxation or Body Scanning. (Slide 19).
Step 9 Exercise – Stress Prescription. Have students identify a stressful situation (current or past) and write it down. Ask them to describe why they perceive it as stressful, what resources they have been using and what additional ones they might need to try.

Possible Further Presentation
Materials
Performance under Stress (Slides 20 - 22)

Foundations for Lifelong Health (Slide 23 - 24)

Summary of Stress Management for College Students –

Survival tips (Slides 25 - 26)


Activities and Procedures
Step 1 Discuss performance and stress. Review optimal level of stress and impact on performance. Possibly have students discuss their past performances that they found stressful and why (Slides 20 – 22).
Step 2 Review the consequences of long-term stress on our physical and psychological functioning. Ask them to think about various people they know and how they handle the stress in their lives. Discuss ways to promote lifelong health by avoiding long-term or chronic stress (Slide 23 - 24).
Step 3 As a useful way to summarise stress management for college students, go over suggested survival tips (Slides 25-26). Ask students for other tips to add to list.
3. Summary
Stress, to a large extent, is under our control. Stress results from our appraisal of a situation and its demands, and our resources for coping with the situation.
The key points can be summarised as follows (from Mind Tools, 1995):
Short-term stress occurs where you find yourself under pressure in a particular situation.


  • A certain level of short term stress is needed to feel alert and alive

  • Too much is unpleasant and can seriously damage performance

  • Short term stress is best handled using mental or physical stress management techniques


Long-term stress comes from a build up of stress over a long period.


  • Sustained high levels can lead to and/or complicate serious physical and mental health problems if not controlled.

  • Long-term stress is best managed by changes to lifestyle, attitude and environment.

If students learn about and understand stress, they can take a proactive role in managing their stress and making it work for them - in college as well as in their future personal and professional lives.



REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aherne, D. (2001). Understanding student stress: A qualitative approach.



Irish Journal of Psychology, 22, 176 – 187.
Baird, K. (2001). Attachment, coping, and satisfaction with life in an Irish

university sample: An exploratory study. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Georgia State University, U.S.A.
Brotheridge, C. (2001). A comparison of alternative models of coping:

Identifying relationships among co-worker support, workload, and emotional exhaustion in the workplace. International Journal of Stress Management, 8 (1), 1-14.


Butler, G. & Hope, R.A. (1995). Manage your mind: The mental fitness

guide. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, S. & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering

hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357.


Davis, M., Eshelman, E.R. & McKay, M. (1995). The relaxation and

stress reduction workbook, 4th edition. Oakland: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.
Fisher, S. (1994). Stress in academic life: The mental assembly line.

Buckingham, UK: Open University.


Greenberg, J.S. (1987). Comprehensive stress management, 2nd

edition. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown Publishers.
Lazarus, R.S. & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New

York: Springer.


Lopez, F.G. & Brennan, K.A. (2000). Dynamic processes underlying adult

attachment organization: Toward an attachment theoretical perspective on the healthy and effective self. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 47, 283-300.


Lyubomirsky, S. (2001). Why are some people happier than others? The role

of cognitive and motivational processes in well-being. American Psychologist, 56, 239-249.


Mind Tools (1995). Effective Stress Management [online], Available:

http://www.mindtools.com [March 3, 2001]).
Student Health Centre (2001). Making stress work for you. Dublin: Trinity

College.
Tinto, V. (1998). College as communities: Taking research on student

persistence seriously. Review of Higher Education, 21, 167-177.
Tyrrell, J. (1993). Factors affecting student mental health. Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.




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