Structural typology

UNIVERSAL TYPE UNIVERSAL PHENOMENON.
Phinetic morphological features: all languages have vowels and consonants.
Morphological:

1. 
   in most languages words are structured into morphemes,
   
2. 
   morphemes function as full and auxiliary elements.
   

Lexical:

1. 
   in all languages vocabulary is a system of semantic fields.
   
2. 
   in all languages there is polysemy, synonymy, antonymy.
   

Syntactic: in all languages there is a distribution of a subject-verb- object.
Examples of full universals:
"If a language has discreet morphemes, there are either pre-fixation or suffixation or both of them". "If a language is exclusively suffixational, it is a language with post-fixes. If a language is exclusively prefixational, it is a language with prefixes "
There are different ways of articulating and describing linguistic universals: de­scriptive and formal (with the help of special symbols).
B. Etalon language is an object language for Linguistic typology and it is also a means or system of tools to compare languages. It is usually identified deductively. The notion of etalon language was introduced by Boris Uspenskiy.
Some scholars prefer the term meta language which is to a certain extent syn­onymous to etalon language. It is the second major function of the etalon language to serve an instrument of comparison. This instrument may be represented as fol­lows:

• 
  any natural language (usually one's native tongue)
  
• 
  a linguistic category, for example gender, voice, person, sex, etc.
  
• 
  a postulate of General Linguistics, for example, polysemy, semantic field, etc.
  

At mediaeval times Latin was usually used to compare other languages (Gram­mar of Port Royal) but because Latin grammatical structure is rather complicated now it is often suggested to take an amorphous language as a meta-language or turn either to a linguistic category or a postulate.
Below are some more examples of etalon languages:

1. 
   specially created artificial language;
   
2. 
   an existing language with well-developed system;
   
3. 
   certain sign system;
   
4. 
   certain linguistic method;
   

c) phonetic, morphological, syntactic or other models;

6. 
   intermediary language;
   
7. 
   Language of translation, etc.
   

For applied purposes etalon language is classified into minimal and maximal.
C. Tvpoloskal classification is ..."opposed to genetic/genealogical classifica­tion and is bound to classifying languages according to their taxonomic /systemic features and defining structural types of languages". (V, Solntzev)²⁹.