The Dillingham Report, Franz Boas, and the Measurement of U. S. ‘New’ Immigrants, 1907-1911

, in: Filológiai Közlöny, XLV(1-2).1999b, 13-16.

–––, ‘For the Information of the President’: The U.S. Government Surveillance of Austro-Hungarian Emigration (1891-1907), in: Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies, 6(2).2000, 213-37.

Goldstein, Marcus S., Demographic and Bodily Changes in Descendants of Mexican Immigrants, with Comparable Data on Parents and Children in Mexico, Austin, TX 1943.

Gould, Stephen J., The Mismeasure of Man, New York/London 1981.

Grant, Madison, The Passing of the Great Race or The Racial Basis of European History, New York 1916.

Gravlee, Clarence C./H. Russell Bernard/William R. Leonard, Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: a Re-Analysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data, in: American Anthropologist, 105(1).2003a, 125-138.

–––, Boas’s Changes in Bodily Form: The Immigrant Study, Cranial Plasticity, and Boas’s Physical Anthropology, in: American Anthropologist, 105(2).2003b, 326-32.

Hankins, Frank H., Anglo-Saxonism and Nordicism in America, in: Calverton, Victor F. (ed.), The Making of Society. An Outline of Sociology, New York 1937, 775-84.

Herskovits, Melville J., Franz Boas as Physical Anthropologist, in: American Anthropological Association (ed.), Franz Boas, 1858-1942, Memoirs No. 61, Menasha, WI 1943, 39-51.

–––, Man and His Works. The Science of Cultural Anthropology, New York 1960.

Historical Statistics of the United States. Colonial Times to 1970, Part I, Washington 1975.

Hofstadter, Richard, Social Darwinism in American Thought, Boston 1955.

Holloway, Ralph L., Head to Head with Boas: Did He Err on the Plasticity of Head Form? in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(23).2002, 14622-23.

Jenks, Jeremiah W./W. Jett Lauck, The Immigration Problem, New York 1911.

Kline, Allen M., William Paul Dillingham, in: Johnson, Allen/Dumas Malone (eds.), Dictionary of American Biography, Vol. III, New York 1931 (repr. 1959), 310-11.

Kottak, Conrad P., Anthropology. The Exploration of Human Diversity, 4^th ed., New York 1987.

Kraut, Alan M., Silent Travelers. Germs, Genes, and the ‘Immigrant Menace’, New York 1994.

Lesser, Alexander, ‘Franz Boas’, in: Sills, David L. (ed.), International Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences, 2.1968, 99-110.

Munro, William B., Henry Cabot Lodge, in: Malone, Dumas (ed.), Dictionary of American Biography, vol. VI, New York 1961, 346-49.

Peckham, George W., The Growth of Children, in: Report of the State Board of Health, Wisconsin 1881, Madison 1882. Vol. 6, 28-73, Vol. 7, 185-188.

Perlman, Joel, Italians Then, Mexicans Now: Immigrant Origins and Second-Generation Progress, 1890 to 2000, New York 2005.

Radosavljevich, Paul R., Professor Boas’ New Theory of the Form of the Head – A Critical Contribution to School Anthropology, in: American Anthropologist, 13(3).1911, 394-436.

Reeves, Pamela, Ellis Island. Gateway to the American Dream, New York 1991.

Relethford, John H., Boas and Beyond: Migration and Craniometric Variation, in: American Journal of Human Biology, 16(4).2004, 379-86.

Senate Document No. 423, 60^th Congress, 1^st Session. National Archives: RG 85: 51834/18.

Sergi, Giuseppe, Il preteso mutamento nelle forme fisiche dei discendenti degl’immigranti in America, in: Rivista Italiana di Sociologia, XVI(I).1912, 16-24.

Shapiro, Harry L., Migration and Environment: A Study of the Physical Characteristics of the Japanese Immigrants to Hawaii and the Effects of Environment on Their Descendants, New York 1939.

Skal, Georg von, Das amerikanische Volk, Berlin 1908.

Sparks, Corey S./Richard L. Jantz, A Reassessment of Human Cranial Plasticity: Boas Revisited, in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(23).2002, 14636-39.

–––, Changing Times, Changing Faces: Franz Boas’ Immigrant Study in Modern Perspective, in: American Anthropologist, 105(2).2003, 333-37.

Spencer, Herbert, The Americans: A Conversation and a Speech, with an Addition, October 20, 1882, in: Spencer, Herbert, Essays: Scientific, Political & Speculative, Vol. III, London/Edinburgh 1901, 471-92.

Spier, Leslie, Growth of Japanese Children Born in America and in Japan, in: University of Washington Publications in Anthropology, 3(1).1929, 1-30.

Steinmetz, Sebald R., Het nieuwe Menschenras in Amerika, in: Nederl. Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde, 1911, 342-52.

Stern, Bernhard J., Franz Boas as Scientist and Citizen, in: Science and Society, VII(4).1943, 289-320.

–––, Franz Boas as Scientist and Citizen, 2^nd ed., in: Stern, Bernhard J., Historical Sociology. The Selected Papers of B. J. S., New York 1959, 208-41.

Sumner, William Graham, Social Darwinism. Selected Essays. With an Introduction by Stow Persons, Englewood Cliffs, NJ 1963.

Tanner, James M., Boas’ Contributions to Knowledge of Human Growth and Form, in: Goldschmidt, Walter (ed.), The Anthropology of Franz Boas. Essays on the Centennial of His Birth, The American Anthropologist, Vol. 61, No. 5, Part 2, Memoir No. 89, October 1959, 76-111.

–––, A History of the Study of Human Growth, Cambridge 1981.

The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago 1990.

Török, Aurél von, Grundzüge einer systematischen Kraniometrie. Methodische Anleitung zur kraniometrischen Analyse der Schädelform für die Zwecke der physischen Anthropologie, der vergleichenden Anatomie. Ein Handbuch fürs Laboratorium, Stuttgart 1890.

Williamson, Joel, New People. Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States, New York/London 1980.

1^ I am indebted to the Rockefeller Foundation for a fellowship to the Bellagio Study and Conference Center in Bellagio, Italy, where I started working on this paper in 1992. I am grateful to Professor Otto Eiben of the Department of Anthropology at Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, for his comments on a draft version of this article, earlier versions of which were published in Hungary in Anthropologiai Közlemények, Ethnographia, and a collection of essays by the author (Frank 1994; 1995; 1999a).

2^ On the fear of ‘new’ immigration, widely known in contemporary Europe, see Skal (1908, 110).

3^ Congressional Record, 55^th Congress, 3^rd Session, 1424. l. Quoted by Hofstadter (1955, 192).

4^ As Rudyard Kipling called non-Europeans in his poem, „The White Man’s Burden” (1899), appealing to the United States to shoulder the task of developing the Philippines after the Spanish-American War.

5^ A Letter from President Roosevelt on Race Suicide, [American] Review of Reviews, XXXV, 1907, 550-57, see Hofstadter (1955, 189).

6^ At the end of his life, Bryan volunteered to lead the prosecution in the infamous trial of a schoolteacher in Dayton, Tennessee who had taught Darwinian evolution in violation of state law. Soon after that he fell ill and died, see Hofstadter (1955, 200).

7^ Speech on the subject of immigration delivered by Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge, before The Boston City Club, Boston, Mass., on March 20, 1908 (Senate Document). The annual data provided by Cabot Lodge coincide with recently published U.S. historical statistics, with the exception of four years (1892-1895); see Historical Statistics of the United States (1975, 105-106).

8^ For a comparison of ‘new’ immigration with recent immigration see (Frank 1993; Perlman 2005).

9^ The first edition of ‘Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants’ was published in 1911 as a document of the U.S. Senate; Columbia University Press published a reprint in 1912 for the general public (Boas 1911; 1912).

10^ All the letters from or to Franz Boas in this paper are quoted from the Franz Boas Papers, B/B61, kept in the American Philosophical Society Library, Philadelphia, PA (Boas Papers 1908a; 1908b). I am indebted to the American Philosophical Society for a grant and for the use of the collections in their library, as well as for the gracious and effective technical assistance of Martha J. Harrison even well after my grant period.

11^ In a centenary study commemorating Boas, J. M. Tanner summed up his main measurements according to the various groups investigated, data that remain interesting even though some results are not statistically significant (Boas 1911, 16-17; Tanner 1959, 100).

12^ Boas generally used the term ‘type’ in most of his writings and university lectures (Boas 1909; 1912, 550). Even in the chapter on ‘race’ of his General Anthropology, Boas devoted most of his attention to types (Boas 1938, 95-123).

13^ Comparable arguments were put forward already by J. Hector St. John de Crèvecoeur in his ’Letters from an American Farmer’, London 1782, quoted by Abbott (1926, 18).

14^ Boas refers here to page 53 of his preliminary survey submitted to Congress before the completion of his final report, on December 3, 1910. Most of the critical reviews were written without the knowledge of the complete report (Boas 1912, 557).

15^ The book was later published in the U.S. as ‘The Mind of Primitive Man’.

16^ Based on the investigations of Bruno Klopfer, Drs. Landsman and Malzberg.