The Wilson Journal of Ornithology 120(3):613–617, 2008
White-winged Diuca Finch (Diuca speculifera) Nesting on
Quelccaya Ice Cap, Peru´
Douglas R. Hardy
1,3
and Spencer P. Hardy
2
ABSTRACT.—We found evidence of birds nesting
directly on glacier ice of the Quelccaya Ice Cap in the
Cordillera Vilcanota, Peru´ at elevations up to 5,300 m.
Observations during June and July over several years
consisted of numerous nests not in situ having obvi-
ously fallen from the steep and dynamic, retreating
glacier margin. A typical nest was a bulky structure of
grass and twigs with a dry mass of 160 g. The inner
cup was nicely formed and lined with fine grass, mea-
suring 6–7 cm in diameter and 4–5 cm deep. Feathers
and entire wings of White-winged Diuca Finch (Diuca
speculifera) were observed in association with the
nests; this was the passerine species most commonly
seen in the area. The evidence indicates the glacier
nests were built and used by White-winged Diuca
Finch, probably during the Austral autumn when on-
site automated measurements indicate the wet season
ends and air temperatures have not yet decreased. This
is the first well-documented case of high-elevation avi-
an nesting on glacier ice. Received 30 November 2006.
Accepted 26 December 2007.
Some birds are well adapted to environments
which are seasonally dominated by snow or sea
ice, but birds are not generally associated with
1
Climate System Research Center, Geosciences De-
partment, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA
01003, USA.
2
Marion W. Cross School, Norwich, VT 05055,
USA.
3
Corresponding author;
e-mail: dhardy@geo.umass.edu
glaciers. Only the Emperor Penguin (Aptenod-
ytes forsteri) is known to routinely nest on ice,
typically frozen sea-ice (i.e., fast-ice) but at
times in association with ice shelves derived
from glaciers (Kooyman 1993). Transient birds
have been observed passing over mountain gla-
ciers at high elevations outside the polar regions
or discovered after succumbing to harsh envi-
ronmental conditions (Krajick 2002; L. G.
Thompson, pers. comm.). However, glacier sur-
faces are usually cold, actively changing
through accumulation and ablation, and at times
wet; conditions that are poorly suited for nesting
and raising young birds.
The ornithological literature contains only
one detailed account of nesting on a glacier.
This was the unusual circumstance where gla-
ciers advancing into Alaska’s Prince William
Sound overran a Black-legged Kittiwake (Ris-
sa tridactyla) colony (Irons 1988). Previously-
used nest sites were unavailable and 77 kitti-
wake nests were constructed on the glacier
face. All of these nests failed due to ablation
and/or meltwater runoff which either dis-
lodged the nests or caused them to disintegrate
(Irons 1988; D. B. Irons, pers. comm.).
The objective of this paper is to present ev-
idence of nesting by White-winged Diuca
Finch (Diuca speculifera) directly on glacier
ice of the Quelccaya Ice Cap in Cuzco De-
614
THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY
• Vol. 120, No. 3, September 2008
FIG. 1.
(A) White-winged Diuca Finch on Quelccaya Ice Cap at
ϳ5,200 m on 23 June 2007, (B) the same
glacier in June 2005 with arrow indicating the approximate location of the first nest observation in 2005 and
the nest described in text. Circled area of margin just above the proglacial lake is enlarged in (C) looking under
the ice. The circle on (C) encloses a nest which is likely in situ, 3 m above rock surface with enlarged view in
(D); note silt from meltwater runoff.
partment, Peru´ (14
Њ S, 71Њ W). Observations
were made over several years during the Aus-
tral winter (Jun–Jul) in the course of con-
ducting glacier and climate research on the ice
cap. This is the first well-documented case of
high-elevation avian nesting on a glacier, cor-
roborating a second-hand report of ‘‘ice cave’’
nesting by White-winged Diuca Finch (John-
son 1967).
OBSERVATIONS
During June 2005, while exploring the re-
treating Quelccaya Ice Cap margin, we came
upon a nest which appeared to have fallen re-
cently from the glacier (within weeks-
months). Several other older nests were ob-
served nearby including one in a cave under
the ice margin (Fig. 1). More extensive nest
searches were conducted in 2006 and 2007
along
ϳ1,500 m of glacier margin, resulting
in location of numerous nests. Most were
along two sections with respective lengths of
350 and 530 m, elevation ranges of 50 and
100 m, and upper elevations of 5,200 and
5,300 m. Searches were restricted to this
1,500 m section; the extent to which this is
representative of the Quelccaya Ice Cap is un-
known. However, nesting on the ice cap has
likely not been limited to the last 3 years as
L. G. Thompson has occasionally observed
nests over the past
ϳ30 years (pers. comm.).
Nest remains were most often found on
rocks at the base of near-vertical sections of
ice margin. At least 14 nests were found in
2006 and at least 16 in 2007. These varied in
apparent age from weeks (i.e., previous breed-
ing season) to several years and the 2007
count almost certainly includes some found
the previous year. Two of the freshest nests in
2006 were only 3 m apart.
Typically, sections of glacier margin with
nest remains were nearly vertical, somewhat
grooved or fluted, and
ϳ5–10 m high. Over-
hanging icicles and steeply-sloping rock be-
low the margin made access to some nest re-
mains difficult, and nests still attached to the
glacier could have been overlooked. One nest
was found on the glacier 22 m from the mar-
615
SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
FIG. 2.
(A) Dislodged nest along Quelccaya Ice Cap margin found on 15 July 2006 in inverted position
within 1 m of vertical ice wall at 5,190 m. The nest was not present the previous year (26 Jun 2005), although
a different residual nest was found
ϳ10 m distant. The dark bar on the field book cover is 1.25 ϫ 9.5 cm. (B)
Another dislodged nest in position found, 23 Jun 2007 at 5,230 m; note feathers and 13-cm pen for scale.
gin, below a steep, step-like section of ice
(i.e., not in situ).
Some nests were entirely intact when
found, while others were disintegrating or par-
tially buried by sediment; however, almost all
nests were not in situ (cf. Fig. 1D). Net retreat
of the ice margin is roughly 1 m/year or more
along this part of the Quelccaya Ice Cap and
nests constructed on the steeply-sloping mar-
gin could only be observed in situ within a
brief interval following construction (i.e.,
breeding season) prior to falling. Evidence for
this interpretation is that several nests were
found in inverted position and, in almost ev-
ery case, a vertical trace of nest material was
observed above the nest remains, frozen to the
ice.
Remains of varying ages indicate multi-year
occupation of favorable sites along the ice mar-
gin suggesting that reproductive efforts on the
ice cap are successful. In addition, we observed
fecal sacs in one of the fresh nests, presumably
from nestlings just prior to fledging. No off-gla-
cier nesting evidence was found despite search-
ing areas adjacent to the glacier.
Several nests appeared entirely intact and
the following is based upon one of the fresh-
est-appearing nests observed in 2006. Nests
were bulky structures of grass and twigs with
a deep, well-made inner cup (Fig. 2). It ap-
pears that a rough platform is initially con-
structed (32
ϫ 18 cm), which roughly tapers
upward and becomes increasingly well-woven
towards the top (13 cm outer diameter). Only
this better-woven upper portion was found in
some cases. The inner cup measured
ϳ6.5 cm
in diameter and was 4.6 cm deep. Overall dry
mass of the nest (Fig. 2A) was 160 g. Nests
consisted of woven grass (
ϳ80–90%), partic-
ularly the locally abundant Calamagrostis
chrysantha. The inner cup was lined with finer
grass and feathers were observed in or adja-
cent to some nest remains (Fig. 2B). Analysis
by Carla Dove at the Smithsonian Institution
revealed feathers of Rufous-bellied Seedsnipe
(Attagis gayi), Andean Goose (Chloephaga
melanoptera), and tail feathers of White-
winged Diuca Finch. This diverse assemblage
suggests that nests are lined with feathers re-
covered from the surrounding landscape. No
evidence of camelid fleece was seen in any
nest (cf. Johnson 1967).
DISCUSSION
Although indirect, all evidence indicates that
Quelccaya glacier nests were built and used by
White-winged Diuca Finch. Little information
exists on nesting habits of this species from any-
where in the Andes although Johnson (1967:
368) reported that in the Parinacota area of
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THE WILSON JOURNAL OF ORNITHOLOGY
• Vol. 120, No. 3, September 2008
Chile, a White-winged Diuca Finch nest was
found ‘‘on the ground beneath some loose
stones on a hillside.’’ In lieu of breeding-season
observations of White-winged Diuca Finches at
Quelccaya, our deduction is based upon their
local presence, feathers, and the species known
association with glaciers.
Small groups of White-winged Diuca
Finches of unknown age class were frequently
observed among rocky moraine surfaces and
bogs in the area. This species is known to not
typically retreat northward or to lower eleva-
tions during winter (Johnson 1967, 1972). On
one occasion in June 2007, while we were in-
vestigating an apparent roosting site within a
crack of the glacier, a flock of
ϳ20 White-
winged Diuca Finches began gathering late in
the afternoon at the glacier margin, both on
and off the glacier (Fig. 1). The birds acted
disturbed by our presence in contrast to their
behavior during diurnal feeding.
Several feathers observed in proximity to
the nests were White-winged Diuca Finch
wing or tail feathers. In addition, two nearly-
entire wings (chord
ϭ 105 mm) of White-
winged Diuca Finch were found on the ice at
a 2007 nest site. No feathers were found from
other passerine species (e.g., ground tyrants
[Muscisaxiola spp.]) observed in close prox-
imity to the glacier.
White-winged Diuca Finch is the only spe-
cies to be repeatedly associated in the orni-
thological literature with Western Hemisphere
glaciers. Niethammer (1953) observed an es-
timated 100 White-winged Diuca Finches
gathering for the night inside a glacier cre-
vasse at Chacaltaya (5,200 m) Bolivia in mid-
summer. He also collected one male specimen
on 20 December in breeding condition with
enlarged testes (6
ϫ 4 mm vs. ϳ3 mm for
another specimen collected in late August). A
second association between White-winged
Diuca Finch and glaciers was in the mid-
1960s when P. R. Parker of the Chacaltaya
Astrophysical Observatory found a nest ‘‘in
an ice cave’’ at 5,300 m, leading Johnson
(1967:368) to postulate the species ‘‘quite
possibly nests at a higher altitude than any
other passerine form.’’ Subsequently, several
sources mention that White-winged Diuca
Finch has been recorded roosting in glacier
fissures (Meyer de Schauensee 1970), glacier
crevasses (Ridgely and Tudor 1989) or glacier
cracks (Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe 1990).
Relatively little is known about the timing
of White-winged Diuca Finch nesting in Peru´
or elsewhere. Johnson (1967) suggested this
species nested after the summer rains in the
Parinacota region (Chile–Bolivia) where
White-winged Diuca Finches were present all
year. Immature White-winged Diuca Finches
in Bolivia were noted by Fjeldsa˚ and Krabbe
(1990) during July and August (La Paz), and
August (Cochabamba). These findings are
consistent with the Quelccaya situation, where
climatic conditions present multiple difficul-
ties for breeding birds, especially snow and
low temperature (cf. Hendricks and Norment
1992, Martin and Wiebe 2004).
We began operating an automated weather
station (AWS) in 2003 at the ice cap summit,
ϳ3 km east of the nest sites and ϳ500 m high-
er in elevation. These data permit a close ap-
proximation of the climate in which nest
building, incubation, and rearing of nestlings
occurs on the glacier.
Pronounced seasonality of precipitation at
Quelccaya typically features considerable and
frequent snowfall from late September to early-
mid April. During this wet season, 2 m or more
of snow accumulates at the ice cap summit but,
at the slightly lower elevation margin, ablation
predominates; meltwater flows off during the
day and freezes at night. Some precipitation at
these nest sites (5,150–5,300 m) may be in the
form of rain, as they are close to a rising at-
mospheric freezing level (Thompson et al. 1993,
Bradley et al. 2006). This would impact the
bird’s exposure to moisture, thermal regulation,
food availability, and other factors, and the vi-
ability of glacier nesting in the area.
Diurnal fluctuations in air temperature at Qu-
elccaya are greater than the annual variation. By
assuming a constant environmental lapse rate,
summit AWS measurements can be adjusted to
the elevation of nesting site, revealing average
daily minima of
Ϫ3.1Њ and Ϫ6.3Њ C during the
wet and dry seasons, respectively. Thus, air tem-
perature is low during the night throughout the
year with extreme radiational cooling whenever
cloud cover is low (especially in the dry sea-
son). Maxima for the same periods reach 2.9
Њ
and 0.9
Њ C at the nesting sites.
Successful nesting in this dynamic environ-
ment and extreme climate requires not only
617
SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
thermal and mechanical adaptations to the ice
substrate, but also careful timing within the
seasonal cycle of climate. The AWS data sug-
gest that Quelccaya glacier nesting by White-
winged Diuca Finch most likely occurs as the
wet season concludes in April when nesting
sites become exposed and drier, as the tran-
sient snow line elevation rises. Daily mean
temperatures decrease after March as decreas-
ing cloud cover results in colder nights, but
the decrease in daily maximum is consider-
ably more gradual until June (DRH, unpubl.
data). Young finches had apparently fledged in
each of the past 3 years by this date.
Note Added in Proof.—Quelccaya field-
work during June 2008 provided additional
observations. The first nests clearly in situ
were observed on the glacier, in locations and
orientation as hypothesized. One contained
two abandoned eggs consistent in size and
color for White-winged Diuca Finch (Johnson
1967). Also, a single off-glacier nest, similar
to that described above, was found in situ un-
der boulders
ϳ500 m from the glacier. A late-
afternoon gathering of 20–30 White-winged
Diuca Finch was again observed, 30–60 min
prior to sundown, at the same section of frac-
tured glacier margin where this behavior was
observed in 2007. Several roosts were located
nearby, all entirely within (vs. beneath) the
glacier. One expedition member observed and
photographed White-winged Diuca Finch
roosting at the site prior to sunrise (J. A. Cas-
tan˜eda Gil, pers. comm.). Supplemental ma-
terial on glacier-nesting White-winged Diuca
Finch at Quelccaya Ice Cap is available at
http://www.geo.umass.edu/climate/quelccaya/
diuca.html.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This material is based upon work supported by the
National Science Foundation and NOAA Office of
Global Programs, Climate Change Data and Detection
Program (Grant No. 0402557, awarded to DRH). The
able field assistance of Mathias Vuille, Carsten Braun,
and D. R. Dockstader, along with Mountain Guide Fe-
lix Vicencio and staff, is gratefully acknowledged. Ini-
tial discussion of these observations with Jon Fjeldsa˚,
Alvaro Jaramillo, and M. A. Plenge was helpful. Carla
Dove at the Smithsonian Institution (Washington,
D.C.) undertook feather identification in her laboratory
and provided considerable enthusiasm. We also thank
G. A. Clark, who encouraged preparation of the man-
uscript and provided insightful comments on an earlier
draft. Two anonymous reviewers considerably im-
proved the manuscript.
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