Theme: Influence of racism on American Literature of the XXIII-XIX centuries
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COURSE WORK Theme: Influence of racism on American Literature of the XXIII-XIX centuries Checked by: Begbudiyeva P.SH Done by: Dolliyeva M.Y. Samarkand-2020 CONTENT
INTRODUCTION MAIN PART CHAPTER I. RACISM - THE BEGINING OF NEW HISTORY ON AMERICAN LITERATURE XXIII- XIX CENTURIES 1.1 A History of Race and Racism in America 1.2 The Impact of Racism on American Literature 1.3 The Relationship of Racism and Child Health 1.4 Negative Racial Sterotypes and their effects on Attitudes Toward American Literature. CHAPTER II. BLACK AMERICAN LITERATURE AND THE FREEDOM WRITERS 2 .1The developing of American Literature during the Racism 2.2 Ten Black Authors 2.3 The Development of Women's Writing CONCLUSION REFERENCES INTRODUCTION "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights....."
CHAPTER I. RACISM- THE BEGININGOF NEW HISTORY ON AMERICAN LITEARTURE. 1.1 A History of Race and Racism in America. According to the United Nations, racism is defined as " any distinction, exlusion , restriction or preference based on race, color, descent , or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition enjoyment or exercise , on an equal footing , of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. Racism can be more succinctly defined as the beliefs, attitudes and actions resulting from categorizing individuals and groups based on phenotype, heritage, or culture.Racism is based on racial classification, but most scientists have abandoned the concept of race as a purely biological variable. Racial discrimination is a mechanism through which unequal distribution of risks and opportuniies are created. Many Americans might not know the more polemical side of race writing in our history. The canon of African-American literature is well established. Zora Neale Hurston, Richard Wright, James Baldwin are familiar figures. Far less so is Samuel Morton (champion of the obsolete theory of polygenesis) or Thomas Dixon (author of novels romanticizing Klan violence). It is tempting to think that the influence of those dusty polemics ebbed as the dust accumulated. But their legacy persists, freshly shaping muchof racial discourse. On the occasion of Black History Month, I 've selected the most influential books on race and the black experience published in the United States for each decade of the nation's existence- a history of race through ideas , arranged chronologically on the shelf.( In many cases, I 've added a complementary work noted with an asterisk). Each of these books was either published first in the United States or widely read by Americans. They inspired -and sometimes ended- the fiercest debates of their times: debates over slavery , segregation , mass incarceration. They offered racist explanations for inequities, and antiracist correctives. Some- the poems of Phillis Wheatley, the memoir of Frederick Douglass-stand literature's test of time. Others have been roundly debunked by science , by data, by human experience. No list can ever be comprehensive , and " most influential" by no means signifies " best". But I would argue that together , these works tell the history of anti- black racism in the United States as painfully , as words can. In many ways, they also tell its present. 1.2 The Impact of Racism on American Literature In The Impact of Racism on American Literature, Families, Rossenblatt makes a compelling case for brideging the divide between the humanities and social sciences. Specifically , he explores how literature can be used to inform social science research author examines twenty- seven prominent books written by African- American authors ( including Toni Morrison, Langston, Huges and Zora Neal Hurston ) to argue that literature provides tremendous insight into understanding the ways that racism distinctly impacts family and dynamics and the intimate life of Afircan Americans. Rosenblatt begins with the task of making a case that literature is both a legible and legitmate source of knowledge that social scientists can and should use in their work. Anticipating critiques regarding his selection of the twenty- seven works and his untraditional approach, Rossenblatt directly acknowledges how an internalized white editorial presence , white gatekeppers, among other factors may have shaped the literature published by African American authors. Countering these limitations, he provides reasons why , despite some of the potential biases, these works can serve as a resourse for researchers. In spite of the extince of statistics and numerical data on various aspcets of African American life , including science literature , household violence , teen pregnancy and encounters with the criminal justice system on how racism affects the everyday interactions of African American families is limited. How does racism come home to and affect African American families? If a father in a African American family is denied employment on the basis of his race or a wife is demeaned at work by racist slurs , how is their family life affected?. Given the lack of social science literature responding to these questions , this volume turns to an alternativesource in order to address them: literature. Engaging with novels written by African American authors , it explorers thier rich depictions of African American family life, showing how these can contiribute to our sociological knowledge and making the case for novel as an object and source of social research. As such , it will appeal to scholars and students of the sociology of the family , race and ethnicity , cultural studies and literature. 1.3 The Relationship of The Racism and Child Health Racism is mechanism through which racial/ethnic disparities occurr in child health. To assess the present state of research into the effects of research into the effects of racism on child health, a review of the literature was undertaken. A MEDLINE review of the literature was conducted between October and Nowember 2007 . Studies reporting on emperical research relating to racism or racial discrimination as a predictor or contributor to a child health outcome were included in this rewiew. The definition of " child health" was broad and included behavioral, mental and physical health. Most studies (65%) reported on research performed on behavioral and mebtal health outcomes. Other areas studied included birth outcomes, cardiovascular and metabolic diseases, and satisfaction with care Most research has been conducted on African- American samples (70%) , on adolescents and on older childern , and without a uniformly standardized approach to measuring racism . Furthmore ,many studies used measures that were created for adult populations. There are a limited number of studies evaluating the relationship between racism and child health. Most studies to date , show relationships between perceived racism and behavioral and mental health. Future studies need to include more ethnically diverse minority groups and needs to consider studying the effects of racism in younger childern. Instruments need to be developed that measure perceptions of racism in childern and youth that take into account the unique contexts and developmental levels of childern , as well as differences in the perception of racism in different ethnocultural groups. Furthermore, studies incorporating racism as a specific psychosocial stressor that can potentially have biophysiologic sequelae need to be conducted tounderstand the processes and mechanisms through which racism may contribute to child health disparities. Racial and ethnic health and health care disparities refer to the differences in illness and disease , health outcomes , access to and appropriateness of health care seen between minority and nonminority populations. With regard to maternal and child health , racial/ ethnic disparities have been noted in infant mortality, rates of cesarean delivery , use of prental technologies , acess to renal transplantation, prescribing patterns , cancer survival rates, obesity and adthma, to name a few. The effects of social stratification are mediated through racism, discrimination and oppresion which in turn create segregated environments that provide less access to the material , social , and psychological capital described above. 1.4 Negative Racial Stereotypes and Their Effect on Attitudes Toward American Litearature As human beings , we naturally evaluate everything we come in contact with. We especially try to gain insight and direction from our evaluations of other people. Stereotypes are " cognitive structures that contain the perceiver's knowledge , beliefs , and expectations about human groups ". These cognitive constructs are often created out of a kernel of truth and then distorted beyond reality . Racial stereotypes are constructed beliefs that all members of the same race share given characteristics . These attributed characteristics are usually negative . This part will identify seven historical racial stereotypes of Americans and demonstrate that many of these distorted images still exist in society today. Additionally, strategies for intervention and the implications of this exploration into racial stereotypes will be presented. The racial stereotypes of early American history had a significant role in shaping attitudes toward African Americans during that time . Images of the Sambo, Jim Crow , the Savage, Mammy , Aunt , Jemimah, Sapphire , and Jezebelle may not be as powerful today, yet they are still alive. One of the most enduring stereotypes in American History is that of the Sambo. This pervasive image of a simple- minded , docile black man dates back at least as far as the colonization of America. The Sambo stereotype flourished during the reign of slavery in the United States. It was transmitted through music titles and lyrics , folk sayings , lirerature , childern's stories and games , postcards , restaurant names and menus and thousands of artifacts . In fact, " a stereotype may be so consistently and authoritatively transmitted in each genaration from parent to child that it seems almost a biological fact". CHAPTER II. BLACK AMERICAN LITERATURE AND FREEDOM WRITERS. 2.1 The developing of American Literature During The Racism In this history of American literature , I have tried to be responsive to the immense changes that have occured over the past thirty years in the study of American literature. In particular, I have tried to register the plurality of American culture and American writing: the continued inventing of communities , and the sustained imagining of nations , that constitute the literary history of the United states. My aim here has been to provide the reader with a resonably concise but also coherent narrative that concentrates on significant and symptomatic writers while also registering the range and variety of American writing. I have also , however , looked at less central or canonical writers whose work demands the attention of anyone wanting to understand the full scope of American literature: work that illustrates important literary or cultural trends or helps to measure the multicultural character of American writing. In sum , my aim has been to offer as succinct an account as possible of the major achievments in American literature and of American difference: what it is that distinguishes the American literary tradition and also what it is that makes it extraordinarily , fruitfully diverse. American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late XXIII century writers as Phillis Wheatly. Before the high point of slave narratives, American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives. The genre known as slave narratives in the XIX century were accounts by people who had generally escaped from slavery , about their journeys to freedom and ways they claimed their lives. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was a great period of flowering in literature and the arts, influenced both by writers who came North in the Great Migration and those who were immigrants from Jamaica and other Caribbean islands. Anerican writers have been recognized by the Nobel Prize given to Toni Morrison in 1993. Among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of Americans within the larger American society, American culture, racism , slavery and social equality. American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals , sermons, gospel music , blues, or rap. As Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries , so has the focus of African -American literature. Before the American Civil War, the literature primarily consisted of memoirs by people who had escaped from slavery; the genre of slave narratives included accounts of life under slavery and the path of justice and redemption to freedom. There was an early distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks born in the North. Free blacks in the North often spoke out aganist slavery and racial injustices by using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the same themes of slave xnarratives, but has been largely ignored in current scholarly conversation. At the turn of the 20th century, non- fiction works by authors such as W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated how to confront racism in the United States. During the Civil Rights Movenment , authors such as as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segration and black nationalism. Today, American literature has become accepted as integral part of American literature , with books such as Roots: The Saga of an American family by Alex Haley , The Color Purple by Alice Walker, which won the Pulitzer Prize ; and Beloved by Toni Norrison achieving both best -selling and award winning status. In broad terms, American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States. It is highly varied. Anerican literature has generally focused on the role of Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Roboteau has said , all American studyv" speaks to the deeper meaning of the African American presence in this nation. This presense has always been a test case of the nation's claims to freedom , democracy , equality , the inclusiveness of all. American literature explorers the issues of freedom and equality long denied yo Blacks in the United States. 2.2 Ten Black Authors They are poets, playwrights, novelists and scholars and together they helped capture the voice of a nation. They have fearlessly explored racism abuse and violence as well as love , beauty and music. While their names and styles have changed over the years they have been the voices of their generations and helped inspire the generations that followed them. What follows is a list of prominent Black authors who have left a mark on the literary world forever. Let's introduce " Ten Black Authors" one by one: James Baldwin The first Black author is James Baldwin. Though he spent most of his life living abroad to escape the racial prejudice in the United States , James Baldwin is the quintessential American writer. Best known for his reflections on his experience as an openly gay Black man in white America , his novels essays and poetry make him a social critic who shared the pain and struggle of Black Americans. Born in Harlem in 1924, Baldwin caught the attention of fellow writer Richard Wright who helped him secure a grant in order to support himself as a writer. He left to live in Paris at age 24 and went on to write " Go Tell it on the Mountain which was published in 1953, a novel unlike anything written to date. Baldwin would continue to write novels, poetry and essays with a refereshingly unique perspective for the rest of his life. He published three of his most important essays " Notes of a Native Son" , " Nobody Knows My Name" and " The Fire Next Time". Amiri Baraka The next Black authors Amiri Baraka. Born in 1934, poet , writer and political activist Amiri Baraka used his writing as a weapon against racism and became one of the most widely published African American writers. Known for his social criticism and incendiary style , Baraka explored the anger of Black Americans and advocated scientific socialism. Often confrontational and designed to awaken audiences to the political needs of Black Americans , Baraka was a prominent voice in American literarure. Often focusing on Black Liberation and White Racism , he spent most of his life fighting for the rights of Americans. With a writing career that spanned nearly fifty years , Baraka is respected as one of the leading revolutionary cultural and political leaders , especially in his hometown of Newark . His representations of race and wisdom have made him an influential part of the Black Arts Movement along with Nikki Giovanni , Sonia Sanchez and Maya Angelou. Ralph Ellison Born Ralph Waldo Ellison after the famous journalist and poet Ralph Waldo Emerson , Ellison was known for pursuing universal truths through his writing. A literary critic, writer and scholar , Ellison taught at a variety of colleges and spent two years overseas as a Fellow of the American Academy. In an effort to transcend the starkly defined racial categories of the 1950s , he was sometimes criticized for choosing white society over his African American identity. Identifying as an artist first , Ellison rejected the notion that one should stand for a particular ideology, refuting both Black and white sterotypes in his collection of political , social and critical essays titled " Shadow and Act". However , it was Ellison's first novel that established his place as an important literary figure in America. Published in 1952 , the first lines of Invisible Man struck a chord with hunderds of thousends of readers " I am an invisible man. No , I am not a spook like those who haunted Edgar Allan Poe; nor am l one of your Hollywood - movie ectoplasms . I'm a man of substance of flesh and bone , fiber and liquids -an I might even be said to posses a mind. I'm invisible , understand , simply because people refuse to see me..." . Considered one of the most important works of fiction in the 20th century, Ellison was heavily influenced by Zora Neale Hurston and is often cited as an influence with many writers today such as ZZ Packer and Toni Morrison. Alex Haley Alex Haley's writing on the struggle of American inspired nationwide interest in genealogy and popularized Black history. Best known for The Autobiography of Malcolm X and novel Roots, Haley began his writing career freelancing and struggled to make ends meet. Eating canned sardines for weeks atca time , his big break came when Playboy magazine assigned him to interview Miles Davis. Proving to be such a success , the magazine contracted Haley to do a series of interviews with prominent African- Amrericans. Knows as "The Playboy Interviews " , Haley would eventually meet Malcolm X and ask permission to write his biography. The Autobiography of Malcolm X bestseller and Haley became a literary sucess. Embarking on a new ambitious project , Haley was determined to trace his ancestor's journey from Africa to America as slaves , and tell the story of their rise to freedom. After a decade of research and travel to West Africa, the epic novel Roots : The Saga of an American Family was published in 1976. The book was a national sensation and won the Pulitzer Prize, eventually becoming a television miniseries that would shatter television viewing records when 130 million viewers tuned in. If you enjoy reading Alex Haley , consider reading Jesmyn Ward and Ta - Nehisi Coates. Langston Hughes A primary contributor of the Harlem Renaissance, Langston Hughes was one of the first to use jazz rhythms in his works , becoming an early innovator of the literary art from jazz poetry. While many American poets during the 1920s were writing esoteric poetry to a dwindling audience, Hughes addressed people using language , themes , attitudes and ideas that they could relate to. Influenced by Paul Lawrence Dunbar, Carl Sandburg and Walt Whitman his poetry caught the attention of novelist , critic and prolific photographer Carl Van Vechten. With Van Vechten's help , his first colletion of poetry was published in 1926. A prolific writer known for his colorful poltrayals of Black life from the 1920s-1960s, Hughes wrote plays , short stories, poetry , several books , and contributed the lyrics to a Broadway musical. In addition to his extensive body of work, he inspired other artists and highlighted the power of art as a catalyst for change. Seen as a voice for their own experience , writers during the Harlem Renaissance often dedicated their work to Hughes. The play A Raisin in the Sun by playwright Lorraine Hansberry was named for a line from a Langston Hughes poem. W.E.B. Du Bois As an activist , Pan - Africanist , sociologist educator , historian and prolific writer, W.E. B. Du Bois was one of the most influential African American thought leaders of the 20th century. Growing up in Massachusetts as part of Black elite , it wasn't until attending Fisk Universty in Tennessee that issues of racial prejudice came to his attention. He studied Black America and wrote some of the earlist scientific studies on Black communities , calling for an end to racism. His thesis , The Supperession of the African Slave- Trade to the United States of America, 1638- 1870 remains an authoritative work on the subject. Du Bois eventually went on to help to establish the NAACP where he become editor of its newspaper the Crisis , and a well - known spokesman for the cause. Many of his essays from Crisis were published in book from under the title The Emerging Thought of W.E. B. Du Bois : Essays and Editorials from "The Crisis". In addition to The Souls of Black Folk and the articles and editorials for the Crisis, Du Bois wrote several books. While these attracted less attention than his scholarly works , the also focused on the Black race covering the topics of miscegenation and economic disparties in the South. Most respected for his scholary writing , Du Bois' concepts such as the psychology of colonization explored by Frantz Fanon continued being researched years later. Richard Wright Richard Wright authored what were considered " controversial" novels in his time, including Crotty fave Native son . In 1945 , Wright penned the best -seller Black Boy , a seminal portrayal of one black man's search for self-actualization in a racist society. It paved the way for other successful black writers. Free Reference Work: "Shouting Curses:" the politics of "bad" language in Richard Wright's "Black boy ". 2.3 The Development of Women's Writing American female literature is an educational tool used in America by women of African descent. This use of education became very popular to American women around the 18th century and is becoming even more popular in the 21st century. This use of education also became a platform for many American women to speak out on their opinions that involve society and being a woman in society. Social issues discussed in their books include racism , sexism, classism and social equality. Zora Neale Hurston, Octavia Butler , Tonni Morrison was the best women writers during the race and racism in American literature. Zora Neale Hurston In 1925 as the Harlem Renaissance gained momentum, Zora Neale Hurston headed to New York City. By the time of its height in the 1930s , Hurston was a preeminent Black female writer in the United States. It's said that her apartment was a popular spot for social gatherings with the well-known artists of the time like Countee Cullen and Langston Huges. Of Hurston's more than 50 published novels, short stories, plays and essays, she wrote her most famous work Their Eyes Were Watching God in 1937. Unlike the style of contemporaries Richard Wright and Ralph Ellison , Hurston did not write explicitly about Black people in the context of white America. She focused on the culture and traditions of African Americans through the poetry of their speech. Despite her earlier literary success , Hurston would suffer later in her career. Having difficulty getting published , she died poor and alone. Years later , in Hurston's work with her essay," In Search of Zora Neale Hurston" , published in Ms. magazine in 1975. This essay , alongside her edits of notable works like " l Love Myself When l am Looking Mean and Impressive " , brought Hurston to the attention of a new generation of readers. Toni Morrison Toni Morrison is an African American fiction writer. Her novels became famous in the 1970s and 1980s. She has won numerous awards for her work, most famously a Nobel Prize in Literature, a Pulitzer Prize for Fiction , and a Presidential Medal of Freedom. Biography: Toni Morrison was born Chloe Anthony Wofford on February 18, 1931 in Ohio. As a child she enjoyed storytelling and reading , so it was assumed that she would do well in school. Her upbringing inspired many of her novels. Her father was a sharecropper who moved north to become a shipyard welder in order to provide a better life for his family. Her mother taught her to be powerful , resourceful, and respectful which fueled many of her maternal themes in her novels. She heard stories of the past from her grandparents about growing up in the South. She was the second of four childern. College and Work Toni Morrison attended Howard University and received a BA in English in 1953. She received a Masters from Cornell in 1955. Afterwards she taught at Texas Southern University in 1957 then returned to teach at Horward University. She married a fellow faculty member, Harold Morrison and had two childern. They divorced in 1964 and she began working as an editor. Themes in novels From her family she was taught to have a strong , black self image which is prevalent in her novels. Maternal authority and equality in marriage. Power in black comunity. African American identity, shame , trauma, and family life. Famous Novels * The Bluest Eye 1970 * Song of Solomon 1977 * Beloved 1987 The Bluest Eye She wrote this Book because she wanted to write a book that didn't exist at the time and she wanted it to be a book she would want to read. This book was continued from a short story Morrison had wrote earlier about an American girl who wanted blue eyes. The novel shows the problems of racism and class hierarchies related to " poor and black". They have internalized their inferior position from " white culture " and do not believe anything else ( internalized racism). They main character , Pecola , goes through many traumas including racial shaming , rejection and abuse from her mother , sexual abuse from her alcoholic and violent father and scapegoating by members of the community . Pecola ends up having to create an alternate identity because her true life is too diffcult to bear. Song of Solomon This novel revolves around the themes of black masculinity , assimilation , and black nationalism. The search for American roots is also large part of the book. It brings attention to the personal-familial and social- historical aspects of American identites. The main character, Milkman Dead, is in the black elite but carries shame from his family. He learns about black masculinity and his true identity while in different parts of the United States. This book is really addressed to middle-class African American males as it shows the struggles between classes and how to fit with the " privileged" and the poor blacks. Beloved This novel escapsulates the importance of race and racism to American literature; they have labeled as the other , inferior, dirty, unintelligent , primal. Slavery is the forefront as it shows how internlized racism affeted the slaves. She shows slavery in its harshest and truest forms , because she does not want people to forget how much hurt and shame it caused. The main character, Sethe, is a slave mother who decides to kill her childern and herself because her slaves because her slave owner had found her, She based this event off a real person's life, Margaret Garner. By using infanticide, she was able to use the shock factor in making readers more interested in the book. Trauma and shame run rampant throughout this novel as well showing how all Morrison's books use these themes. Awards: * Toni Morrison won Pulizter Prize for fiction for Beloved in 1988. * She won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993. * She has won numerous other awards for books * She has honorary degrees from Barnard College, Oxford University , Rutgers University and received one of the highest honors from Vanderbilt University. The novels written by Toni Morrison provided a new outlook on African American life. She was honest and truthful in her writing which shocked people , but it gave her the recognition she deserved. Being an American woman novelist is the current society is very important to people everywhere. She was first American woman to win a Nobel Prize. Octavia Butler In a genre known for being traditionally white and female , Octavia Butler broke new ground in science fiction as an American woman. Born in California in 1947, Butler was an avid reader despite having dyslexia , was a storyteller by 4, and began writing at the age of 10. Drawn to science fiction because of its boundless possibilities for imagination, she was quickly frustrated by the lack of people she could identify with so she decided to create her own. Butler took the science fiction world by storm. Her evocative novels featuring race, sex, power and humanity were highly praised and attracted audience beyond their genre. They would eventually be translated into multiple languages and sell more than a million copies. One of her best- known novels Kindred , published in 1979, tells the story of a Black woman who must travel back in time in order to save her own life by saving a white, slaveholding ancestor. Over her career , she won two Hugo Awards , two Nebula Awards and in 1995 she became the first science fiction writer to win the MacArthur fellowship. The self-described " outsiders" legacy inspired future generations of women including Valjeanne Jeffers , Nedi Okorafor and even singer/songwriter Janelle Monae. CONCLUSION In conclusion, American literature is well accepted in the United States, there are numerous views on its significance, traditions, and theories. To the genre's supporters, African- American literature arose out of the experience of Blacks in the United States, especially with regards to historic racism and discrimination , and is an attempt to refute the dominant culture's literature existing both within and outside American literature and as helping to revitalize the country's writing. African American literature is a part of a Balkanization of American literature. In addition , there are some within the African American literature sometimes showcases Black people. Throughout American history, African Americans have been discriminated against and subject to racist attitudes. This experince inspired some Black writers , at least during the early years of American literature, to prove they were the equals of European -American authors. As Henry Louis Gates, has said, " it is fair to describe the subtext of the history of black letters as this urge to refute the claim that because blacks had no written traditions they were bearers of an inferior culture." By refuting the claims of the dominant culture , American writers were also attempting to subvert the literary and power traditions of the United States. Some scholars assert that writing has traditionally been seen as "something defined by the dominant culture as a white male and female activity." This means that, in American society , literary acceptance has traditionally been intimately tied in with the very power dynamics which perpetrated such evils as racial discrimination. By borrowing from and incorporating the non-written oral traditions and folk life of the African diaspora , African American literature broke " the mystique of connection between literary authority and patriarchal power.These characteristics do not occur in all works by African American writers. Similarly, American literature is within the framework of larger American literature , but it also is independent. As result , new styles of storytelling and unique voices have been created in relative isolation. The benefit of this is that these new styles and voices leave their isolation and help revitalize the larger literary world. This artistic pattern has held true with many aspects of American culture over the last century , with jazz and hip hop being just two artistic examples that developed in isolation within the Black community before reaching a larger audience and eventually revitalizing American culture. REFERENCES * Andrews, W., F. Foster and T. Harris ( eds). The Oxford Companion to African American literature. Oxford, 1997. * Brodhead, R. " An Anotomy of Multiculturalism". Yale Alumni Magazine, April 1994. * Cashmore, E. " Review of the North Anthology of African American Literature" New Statesman April 25, 1997. * Dalrymple, T. " An Imaginary Scandal" Criterion , May 2005. * Davis, M., M. Grahman, and S. Pineault- Burke (eds. Teaching African American Literature: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 1998. * Gates, H. The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America's First Black Poet and Her Encounters With the Founding Fathers , Basic Civitas Book, 2003. * Gilyard, K., and A. Wardi. African American Literature . Penguin, 2004. * Groden, M., and M. Krieswirth. " African American Theory and Criticism" from the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism. * John Callahan, Ph. D., In the African American Grain: Call and Response in Twentieth -Century Black Fiction, Unversity of Illinois Press, reprinted 2001. * Hamilton, K. " Writers Retreat: Despite the proliferation of Black authors and titles in today's marketplace, many look to literary journals to carry on the torch for the written word" . Black issues in Higher Education, November 6, 2003. * Mitchem, S. "No longer Nailed to the Floor" Cross Currents, Spring 2003. Further reading * Dorson, Richard M, editor " Negro Folktales in Michigan", Harward University Press, 1956. " Negro Tales from Pine Bluff, Arkansas , and Calvin , Michigan", 1958. ISBN 0-527-246650-6 "American Negro Folkes" , 1967. * Gates , Henry Louis 1997. " The Norton Anthology of American literature" New York: W.W.W. Norton. * Piacentino, Ed. "Seeds of Rebellion in Plantation Fiction: Victor Sejour's The Mulatto ". Southern Spaces. August 28, 2007. Yüklə 0,73 Mb. Dostları ilə paylaş:
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