Title: Spillover and pandemic properties of zoonotic viruses with high host plasticity
Christine Kreuder Johnson1, Peta L. Hitchens1, Tierra Smiley Evans1, Tracey Goldstein1, Kate Thomas1, Andrew Clements2, Damien O. Joly3, Nathan D. Wolfe3, Peter Daszak4, William B. Karesh4, Jonna K. Mazet1
Supplemental Information
Supplementary Table: Zoonotic viruses with summarized host and transmission interface data (n=95). General transmission categories were grouped here to show disease transmission from direct or indirect contact with wild animals (wild), transmission from direct or indirect contact with domestic animals (domestic), transmission by vector involving wildlife host (wild by vector), transmission by vector involving domestic animal host (domestic by vector), and transmission by vector with either wild and/or domestic animal hosts (by vector). Recognized human-to-human transmissibility, virus host range among wild and domestic animal taxonomic orders, and host plasticity measures (betweenness centrality calculated in the virus-host network) are also shown.
|
Zoonotic Virus
|
Family
|
General Transmission Category
|
Host Range
(# host orders)
|
Host Plasticity (betweenness
centrality)
|
Human to Human Transmissible
|
Geographic Spread Category
|
References
| -
|
Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild & domestic by vector
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
1–7
| -
|
Andes virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
2
|
8–23
| -
|
Australian bat lyssavirus
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
wild
|
2
|
0.05426
|
no
|
2
|
24–39
| -
|
Barmah forest virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild & domestic by vector
|
3
|
0.11170
|
no
|
1
|
40–46
| -
|
Bermejo virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
21,47
| -
|
Bhanja virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild & domestic by vector
|
11
|
2.26170
|
no
|
3
|
48–53
| -
|
Borna disease virus
|
Bornaviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
12
|
3.76271
|
yes
|
3
|
54–64
| -
|
Bovine papular stomatitis virus
|
Poxviridae
|
domestic
|
2
|
0.00974
|
no
|
3
|
65–69
| -
|
Buffalopox virus
|
Poxviridae
|
domestic
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
69–74
| -
|
Bundibugyo ebolavirus
|
Filoviridae
|
wild
|
0
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
1
|
75–78
| -
|
Cache Valley virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
9
|
1.33894
|
no
|
2
|
79–91
| -
|
Chandipura virus
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
wild, wild by vector
|
4
|
0.17489
|
no
|
1
|
92–95
| -
|
Chapare virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
1
|
96–98
| -
|
Chikungunya virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
4
|
0.87557
|
no
|
3
|
53,99–121
| -
|
Choclo virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
1
|
21,122,123
| -
|
Colorado tick fever virus
|
Reoviridae
|
wild & domestic by vector
|
4
|
0.27461
|
no
|
2
|
124–128
| -
|
Cowpox
|
Poxviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
9
|
2.79031
|
no
|
2
|
69,129–141
| -
|
Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild, domestic, & by vector
|
9
|
1.27243
|
yes
|
3
|
142–168
| -
|
Dengue fever
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
3
|
101–103,121,169–193
| -
|
Dobrava virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
194–207
| -
|
Duvenhage virus
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
33,35,38,208–211
| -
|
Eastern equine encephalitis virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
7
|
0.93908
|
no
|
2
|
99,212–219
| -
|
Edge Hill virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
2
|
0.02592
|
no
|
1
|
220,221
| -
|
Encephalomyocarditis virus
|
Picornaviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
4
|
0.79878
|
no
|
3
|
222–226
| -
|
European bat lyssavirus type 1
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
wild
|
4
|
0.23293
|
no
|
2
|
227–240
| -
|
European bat lyssavirus type 2
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
227–234,238,241,242
| -
|
Everglades virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
4
|
0.39571
|
no
|
1
|
243–245
| -
|
Getah virus
|
Togaviridae
|
domestic, domestic by vector
|
5
|
0.19205
|
no
|
2
|
99,246–251
| -
|
Guanarito virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
1
|
98,252–258
| -
|
Guaroa virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
3
|
0.34038
|
no
|
2
|
172,259
| -
|
Hantaan virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
3
|
20–23,194,260–268
| -
|
Hendra virus
|
Paramyxoviridae
|
domestic
|
2
|
0.03744
|
no
|
2
|
34,269–279
| -
|
Hepatitis E
|
Hepeviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
12
|
3.12934
|
yes
|
3
|
280–287
| -
|
Herpes B
|
Herpesviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
3
|
288–299
| -
|
Ilheus virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
9
|
3.14787
|
no
|
2
|
300,301
| -
|
Influenza A
|
Orthomyxoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
6
|
5.52025
|
yes
|
3
|
302–309
| -
|
Influenza B
|
Orthomyxoviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
3
|
310,311
| -
|
Jamestown Canyon virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
4
|
0.10008
|
no
|
2
|
86,212,312–320
| -
|
Japanese encephalitis
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
4
|
0.18939
|
no
|
3
|
94,321–326
| -
|
Junin virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
1
|
253,256,327–336
| -
|
Juquitiba-like virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
337,338
| -
|
Kairi virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
2
|
0.09737
|
no
|
2
|
79,339,340
| -
|
Kyasunur Forest disease virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
6
|
1.53682
|
no
|
2
|
3–6,169,341–343
| -
|
La Crosse virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
4
|
0.27461
|
no
|
1
|
86,124,312,344–351
| -
|
Laguna Negra virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
13,16,20–22,337,352–358
| -
|
Lassa virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
3
|
327,359–375
| -
|
Ljungan virus
|
Picornaviridae
|
wild
|
3
|
0.49656
|
no
|
2
|
376–379
| -
|
Lujo virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
2
|
380,381
| -
|
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
2
|
0.26899
|
no
|
3
|
382–392
| -
|
Machupo virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
1
|
98,253,254,393,394
| -
|
Marburg virus
|
Filoviridae
|
wild
|
2
|
0.12741
|
yes
|
2
|
395–411
| -
|
Mayaro virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
6
|
1.38672
|
no
|
2
|
99,172,412–418
| -
|
Mokola virus
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
domestic
|
4
|
0.43558
|
no
|
2
|
33,35,38,209,242,419–422
| -
|
Monkeypox virus
|
Poxviridae
|
wild
|
4
|
0.75450
|
yes
|
3
|
69,423–436
| -
|
Monongahela virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
1
|
437,438
| -
|
Muju virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
1
|
260,438
| -
|
Murray Valley encephalitis virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
6
|
0.30960
|
no
|
2
|
439–443
| -
|
Nipah virus
|
Paramyxoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
3
|
0.12393
|
yes
|
2
|
34,269,277–279,444–468
| -
|
Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild, domestic, & by vector
|
4
|
0.30372
|
no
|
1
|
4,469–471
| -
|
O'nyong nyong virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
0
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
100,472–475
| -
|
Orf virus
|
Poxviridae
|
domestic
|
4
|
0.09315
|
no
|
3
|
476–492
| -
|
Oropouche virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
493–495
| -
|
Powassan virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
2
|
0.08332
|
no
|
2
|
4,124,496–500
| -
|
Pseudocowpox virus
|
Poxviridae
|
domestic
|
3
|
0.02827
|
no
|
3
|
501–504
| -
|
Puumala virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
2
|
0.08332
|
no
|
2
|
21–23,194,196,438,505–521
| -
|
Rabies virus
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
10
|
2.01739
|
no
|
3
|
35,242,522–532
| -
|
Reston ebola virus
|
Filoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
2
|
0.08516
|
no
|
2
|
533–536
| -
|
Rift Valley fever virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild, domestic, & by vector
|
9
|
2.35230
|
no
|
2
|
537–546
| -
|
Ross River virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild & domestic by vector
|
11
|
2.44876
|
no
|
2
|
42,99,547–552
| -
|
Rotavirus A
|
Reoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
10
|
2.87215
|
yes
|
3
|
553–566
| -
|
Sandfly fever virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
domestic by vector
|
5
|
0.23979
|
no
|
3
|
22,53,142,537,567–576
| -
|
SARS coronavirus
|
Coronaviridae
|
wild
|
5
|
0.31665
|
yes
|
3
|
444,577–582
| -
|
Sealpox
|
Poxviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
583–587
| -
|
Seoul virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
3
|
20–23,194,260,265,337,588–596
| -
|
Simian foamy virus
|
Retroviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
597–605
| -
|
Simian immunodeficiency virus
|
Retroviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
606–613
| -
|
Simian retrovirus type D
|
Retroviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
614–618
| -
|
Sin Nombre virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
8,9,12,21–23,100,101,194,438,619–634
| -
|
Sindbis virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
5
|
0.25821
|
no
|
3
|
46,52,99,101,121,142,475,635–643
| -
|
St. Louis encephalitis virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
6
|
1.42191
|
no
|
2
|
124,213,644–655
| -
|
Sudan ebola virus
|
Filoviridae
|
unknown
|
0
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
2
|
76,656–661
| -
|
Tahyna virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
4
|
0.26590
|
no
|
3
|
52,121,340,475,643,662–667
| -
|
Tick borne encephalitis
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild, wild by vector
|
6
|
0.71747
|
no
|
2
|
142,169,594,668–683
| -
|
Tioman virus
|
Paramyxoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
2
|
0.04547
|
no
|
2
|
34,269,667,684,685
| -
|
Tula virus
|
Bunyaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
2
|
22,23,686–689
| -
|
Usutu virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
3
|
0.17841
|
no
|
2
|
121,340,635,643,687,690–703
| -
|
Venezualan equine encephalitis
|
Togaviridae
|
wild & domestic by vector
|
5
|
0.56228
|
no
|
2
|
170,172,243,244,252,704–712
| -
|
Vesicular stomatitis
|
Rhabdoviridae
|
domestic, & by vector
|
14
|
4.63961
|
no
|
2
|
252,713–722
| -
|
Wesselsbron virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
domestic, & by vector
|
5
|
0.18756
|
no
|
2
|
722–725
| -
|
West Nile virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
domestic, & by vector
|
6
|
0.66653
|
no
|
3
|
38,52,121,142,210,313,316,475,635,643,666,667,690,726–732
| -
|
Western equine encephalitis virus
|
Togaviridae
|
wild by vector
|
5
|
0.51692
|
no
|
2
|
99,212,213,654,655,733,734
| -
|
Whitewater Arroyo virus
|
Arenaviridae
|
wild
|
1
|
0.00000
|
yes
|
2
|
98,329,735–741
| -
|
Yellow fever virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
1
|
0.00000
|
no
|
3
|
102,103,121,172,740,742–746
| -
|
Zaire ebola virus
|
Filoviridae
|
wild, domestic
|
5
|
0.62028
|
yes
|
2
|
657,661,747–754
| -
|
Zika virus
|
Flaviviridae
|
wild by vector
|
7
|
1.75492
|
no
|
3
|
76,755–761
|
Supplementary References
1. Charrel, R. N. et al. Low diversity of Alkhurma hemorrhagic fever virus, Saudi Arabia, 1994-1999. Emerg. Infect. Dis.
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