Training manual } war department
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Who was Benjamin Franklin and in what way did he influence the development of the country? In what way did John Marshall contribute to national welfare? What advantages did Thomas Jefferson secure for the United States by making the Louisiana Purchase? Against what modern movements did Daniel Webster counsel? To what principal task did Abraham Lincoln set himself? Who was Daniel Boone, and what did he accomplish? As the result of the expedition of Capt. George Rogers Clark in the Northwest Territory, what States were added to the Union? What was achieved by the expedition of Lewis and Clark? How did the efforts of the Rev. Marcus Whitman terminate in reference to the Oregon country? Who was Gen. John C. Frémont and of what value were his services? Who were the real conquerors of the West? What were the main steps in our national development accomplished by far-seeing American statesmen? What principal changes were brought about by Whitney's invention of the cotton gin? What was Whitney's greatest invention? Why? What were the principal contributions of Robert Fulton in modern development? Who invented the telegraph? Who improved and amplified this invention? For what are we indebted to Capt. John Ericsson? Who made the discovery that stopped the ravages of yellow fever the world over? Who eradicated tropical anemia and malignant malaria from Panama?
SECTION V LESSON 5. — ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICA Paragraph The colonial spirit ------------------------------------------------------- 72 Colonists largely representative ---------------------------------------- 73 A continent to conquer -------------------------------------------------- 74 Limited facilities. Chief pursuits, agriculture and seafaring. The federation of the colonies ------------------------------------------ 75 Encouraged by constitutional provisions ------------------------------ 76 The money clause. The post-office clause. The commerce clause. The taxing clause. The naturalization clause. Fixed terms of office. Free land and opportunity ---------------------------------------------- 77 "Westward Ho!" Influence of the Civil War ---------------------------------------------- 78 Capital control------------------------------------------------------------ 79 Need for cheap labor. The new immigration. Citizen control ----------------------------------------------------------- 80 Adaptation to abnormal conditions ------------------------------------ 81 Labor advancement ------------------------------------------------------ 82 Mass production and high wages -------------------------------------- 83 Steady employment ------------------------------------------------------ 84 Intensive efforts of industry -------------------------------------------- 85 The rreditor Nation ------------------------------------------------------ 86 Production the basis of wealth and wages ---------------------------- 87 Mechanized industry ----------------------------------------------------- 88 Higher self-appreciation ------------------------------------------------- 89 Employee becomes employer ------------------------------------------- 90 High standards of living ------------------------------------------------- 91 Ability to purchase. Is America worth saving? ----------------------------------------------- 92 72. The colonial spirit. — Three hundred years ago America was a wilderness. Her total white population consisted of a few hundred men, women, and children, established in several small communities along the Atlantic seaboard. For the most part they were a Godfearing people, led to America by the vision of a new land in which they could work out ideals and visions inspired by their deep religious convictions. Along with these groups were others of more worldly persuasion, who came in the spirit of adventure or to escape political conditions, which, in the changing reign of the rulers of England, made their move advisable. 73. Colonists largely representative. — As a whole the colonists were largely representative of the life, thought, and aspirations of that period; they were not supermen and women any more than they were of the vicious type. They were moved by the impulses common to humanity, chief of which is always that of self-preservation. 74. A continent to conquer. — Here they found a vast and unknown continent in the possession of roving tribes of Indians; a wilderness of great forests, mighty rivers, and boundless prairies. Their's for the taking, if they possessed the ability and courage to conquer the all but insurmountable obstacles and dangers.
During her first 150 years of existence, America grew to be a people of some 3,000,000 souls and was forced to confine her development to agriculture and seafaring pursuits. Building up a seafaring trade, she transported the raw material of the new land to England, France, Holland, and Spain, there to be exchanged for the necessities of life not produced by their own handicraft. 75. The federation of the colonies. — Industrial progress came with the establishment of the new Nation, "The United States of America." Lacking capital, other than that of character, courage, and concentrated labor, the bankrupt colonies were welded into a union of action which has led our Nation by successive stages to its present attainments, the marvel and wonder of modern time. 76. Encouraged by constitutional provisions. — In the Government set up under the Constitution provision was made for a freedom of action which gives full play to every citizen in the exercise of his rights and powers. The wisdom of the law of our land is emphasized with each passing year. The remarkable economic development of America is based upon the liberties and restrictions granted as the equal right of all her citizens. Outstanding among these provisions are: The money clause. — The money clause establishes credit through the sole power vested in the Federal Government to coin money, incur national obligations through issue of bonds or notes of indebtedness, establishment of our national bank, and later our Federal reserve bank system, forbidding any State from incurring financial obligations with foreign powers or other States. The post-office clause. — The post-office clause, through which communication is regulated between the States and with the world at large, is a duty alone of the National Government. In this clause are found the rules and regulations governing mail, telegraph and telephone lines, and the radio. Strict regulations hold all accountable for matter transmitted by mail, as to its truthful or fraudulent character; rates are fixed by the Government with equal application to all. The commerce clause. — The commerce clause set up an agency of exceptional worth by reason of the freedom granted in interstate traffic, the elimination of barriers, duties, or restrictions which might otherwise be created in exchange, sale, and shipment from State to State. Citizens of any State have equal rights as citizens of the United States, subject only to such local laws as apply to all citizens of the State within which business is transacted. The taxing clause. — The taxing clause permits taxes to be levied for the requirements of government only; such taxes to be uniform in application and subject to revision as necessity governs. The naturalization clause. — The naturalization clause establishes one class of citizens only; with equality to all and privilege to none. Under this and the immigration acts our Nation is assured a strength and unity of purpose and action and an equality of citizenship that could not otherwise be attained. Fixed terms of office. — Fixed terms of office: Our system of government by which definite terms of office are assured gives stability to business in the fact that in no crisis can an administration be overthrown in a day, through dissolution of Congress or the resignation of the Cabinet. Parties may rise and fall without serious effect upon our economic life. 77. Free land and opportunity. — Other important factors in our economic development were free land and diversified natural resources. In these America has been particularly blessed. Lack of capital prevented none from making progress in America. For the first 250 years the immigrant to our shores knew that the door of opportunity was wide open. Landing with barely enough money to pay transportation to this chosen destination, and with no hindrance other than that of being a stranger in a new country, both land and employment were to bo had for the asking. Westward Ho! — Through the liberality of our Government and the vast and areas open for settlement there was established and developed the largest and richest agricultural territory now under cultivation in the world. For nearly 100 years following the War of Independence the cry was "Westward Ho!" By families and by groups the creaking ox-drawn schooners wended their way slowly toward the setting sun. Driving the Indians and wild game before them, they cut the forest, broke the sod, planted, harvested, built home, school, church, and town, preparing the way for tho next step in our progress — the railroad. 78. Influence of the Civil War. — Before any great railroad development had taken place the peaceful life of our country was interrupted by the Civil War. It is questionable if that struggle, with its frightful loss of life and treasure, would ever have taken place had railroads been constructed linking the North and the South. In 1860 there were only some 30,000 miles of railroad in America, nearly all of which ran east and west, by reason of the fact that our great rivers flow from the north to the south, and our railroads could not then compete with river transportation. In 1860 no railroad was built farther west than the Mississippi River. West of that stream the country was almost entirely given over to the great herds of buffalo and roving Indians. With the close of the Civil War the impetus given industry by the necessity of making war materials, the development of steel, and a growing appreciation of the value of rail transportation caused a marked advance in our economic life. Tho acquaintance of masses of men from every section of tho country and the close ties formed by their association through the war added its force to the awakening of a new era. 79. Capital control. — Capital saw great opportunity for profit through development of our vast natural resources. Foreign capital was attracted. Combinations were formed. These groups were able to obtain concessions and rights, quickly developing a power of control over industry which placed in the hands of a comparative few the economic life of America. Need for cheap labor. — With capital consolidated, only labor was required for this exploitation of our natural resources. America was too vast in area and too small in population to furnish the labor. By then-existing immigration laws the doors were open — the world might enter. Capital needed labor, and it must be cheap labor. The new immigration. — "The man with the hoe" was invited and urged to find in free America his great opportunity. He came by thousands, then tens and hundreds of thousands. The former class of immigrant had come to America to take up land and become farmers and builders of homes and communities. They were followed by the thousands who worked in the noise and sweat of our great steel mills, in our coal mines, and in the factories which quickly built up within our cities large congested areas, with great sections almost entirely composed of single nationalities. Labor was exploited, voted, worked, or left unemployed. 80. Citizen control. — Following the war with Spain in 1898 a change was inaugurated. Led by far-seeing men who recognized the danger to our free Government in the increasing power of capital, the people developed a system of control through Congress which broke or checked its combinations. Industry had greatly developed during this period. Wealth had been amassed as never before. Yet (he economic life of America had suffered — equality of opportunity was largely restricted and classes with intense class hatred were created. 81. Adaptation to abnormal conditions. — In 1917 there came a national emergency. One class alone — the "American citizen" — took precedence. America astounded the world with her ability to adapt herself to abnormal conditions, converting her peacetime factories and equipment to war-time requirements. 82. Labor advancement. — During the World War the wage earner learned to put his excess money into Liberty bonds. He caught the idea of investment, acquired the habit of systematic saving, discovered the strength that lies in consolidating the small savings of the many. He began to understand the meaning of capital, lost his fear of it, and found a way to have a part in its benefits. 83. Mass production and high wages. — The conclusion of the war found America committed to mass production, mass cooperation, and mass saving. These were some of the blessings that accrued out of the hell of war. Industry awakened to the astonishing fact that high wages to labor increased rather than diminished profits, by the simple process of increasing the buying power of millions of employed. 84. Steady employment. — Industry learned the value of steady employment. It sought ways of regulating production to give work
85. Intensive efforts of industry. — Industry set up research bureaus, stimulated inventors, chemists, and scientists to greater efforts in a search for better machines and methods, the elimination of waste in materials, and in developing by-products therefrom. Through these intensive efforts production per man power has been largely increased, new products created, markets enlarged, and industry stimulated. 86. The creditor Nation. — In the earlier history of American industry foreign capital was invested by millions of dollars in our great enterprises. We were a debtor Nation. Today we are the creditor Nation. 87. Production the basis of wealth and wages. — There is no actual wealth in materials, metal, or money until they are adjusted to the use, needs, or wants of mankind. Production is the basis of wealth. In no other country do wages approach the sum paid the individual workman of America. The contributing factors to this highly satisfactory situation are summed up in the word "production." American production per man power ranges from two and one-half to thirty times that of other nations. 88. Mechanized industry. — Industry in America is mechanized and specialized to a degree not approached by any other country. Our automatic labor-saving and power-driven machinery is the wonder of Europe. Our mass production, made possible by special machinery and highly trained operators, astounds the world with its magnitude, quality, and low cost. 89. Higher self-appreciation. — Modern methods of industry discipline the lazy, wasteful, and disloyal workmen; speed up production; work out short cuts; improve quality; and eliminate waste; thereby contributing largely to lower costs through greater efficiency. At the same time there is engendered a higher appreciation in the employee of his worth to himself, his employer, and his country. 90. Employee becomes employer. — A keener sense of pride awakens ambition, a quickened intellect inspires study, a broader view of life reveals opportunity, creates hew desires expressed in higher living standards and a rapidly growing participation in industry as a partner through purchase of stock in different enterprises. Through quickened intelligence and systematic saving, the employee of today becomes the employer of to-morrow. At a dinner in New York given in 1927 to a group of British workers investigating American industry, every American captain of industry present save one came up from the overall stage. 91. High standards of living. — Human needs are few by comparison with human wants. Were it not for ever-increasing desires for the comforts, conveniences, and luxuries of life, modern industry would be unable to sustain itself. Civilization is the result of human demands, the combination of spiritual and material aspirations. In no other nation have these aspirations been so fully satisfied. The standard of living established by any group or nation is based upon the distribution of wealth. The closer together we bring the extremes of wealth and poverty, the higher the attainments and general welfare of the people. Ability to purchase. — Power of consumption is based upon the ability to purchase and pay for the desired commodities. In America the employee receives 72 per cent and the employer 28 per cent of the income of industry, constituting a range of wealth distribution which fixes our living standards at the highest point known in the world. 92. Is America worth saving? — The remarkable development of American industry has proven beneficial to all — not only to employer and employee, but also to the world. America has amassed unbelievable wealth which is being spent for the good of mankind. In its large range of distribution it has fixed our standards of living at the highest point known to civilization. We may therefore answer — Yes! America is well worth saving! QUESTIONNAIRE What facilities for economic development were available to the early colonists? What were their chief pursuits? Explain. In what manner did the Government, set up under the Constitution, encourage economic development? Name other important factors in our economic development. Describe the impetus given to our industries by the Civil War. What led to the demand for "cheap labor"? In what way did "the new immigration" compare with the colonists? How did the people control industry? Explain America's adaptation to abnormal conditions during the World War. Describe the benefits to labor through high wages and steady employment. How do research bureaus aid industry? What is meant by the "creditor nation"? Upon what does prosperity depend? Explain. Is mechanized industry beneficial to the people? How do modern methods of industry affect labor? What are some of the benefits of mechanized industry? How do America's standards of living compare with those of other nations? What is the range of wealth distribution in America? What conditions and qualities have made possible the creation of the great wealth of America? What can you do to assist in the further economic development of America? Is America worth saving? Why? SECTION VI LESSON 6. — INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE Paragraph Mankind a mass of individual ego ------------------------------------- 93 Two forms of government ---------------------------------------------- 94 Collectivistic government ----------------------------------------------- 95 "Equality of condition." Denial of personal rights. Confiscation of private property. Religion outlawed. Abolition of the family. "Socialism" kills. Individualistic government --------------------------------------------- 96 "Equality of opportunity." Right to private property. Economic freedom. Political rights. Protection to home and family. Respect for religion. An American institution ------------------------------------------------- 97 Constitutional guaranties ------------------------------------------------ 98 Aristocracy of brains ---------------------------------------------------- 99 The four I's ------------------------------------------------------------- 100 Individuality. Independence. Initiative. Intelligence. The price of success ---------------------------------------------------- 101 Work.
Education. Ideals. The citizen's privilege ------------------------------------------102 93. Mankind a mass of individual ego. — Psychology and social science have discovered that mankind is made up of a mass of individual ego, each revealing similar characteristics of instincts, idiosyncrasies, and manifestations of selfish interests — in the control of which his intelligence has developed forms of government. From earliest childhood self-assertion, self-determination, self-preservation manifest themselves. It is human nature for the strong to take advantage of the weak, whether it be strength of body, strength of mind, or strength of a
The chief purpose of government is that of controlling this instinct and directing it into channels through which society will gain the greatest benefit. 94. Two forms of government. — One form of government gives the State the supreme control and places all its citizens upon a common level of "equal condition''; the other recognizes the rights of the individual as greater than the government, and emphasizes the superiority of "equality of opportunity" in contrast with "equality of condition." 95. Collectivistic government. — "Equality of condition". — In this system of government stress is laid upon the proposition that "all men are created equal," meaning that no man has a right to that which is denied to another; that any system of government failing to recognize and conform to this "ideal" is wrong, and therefore an enemy of society and a foe of mankind. The ignorant, illiterate, physically and mentally deficient, the lazy, improvident, and reckless have equal right with the alert, aggressive, busy, educated, high-minded, orderly citizen who aspires to the best and is willing to pay the price of attainment through self-discipline, hard work, and careful management. It is not in human nature to recognize "equality of condition" except to acquire a personal advantage. One may be willing to divide another's property with the third and fourth individual providing the share remaining to him is something more than he formerly possessed. Denial of personal rights. — "Collectivism" is the denial of personal rights. The State (community) becomes the chief concern of all. It claims that the "law of equality," once applied, would destroy every human desire for individual dominance, making society safe, content, comfortable, and happy. This "ideal" is to be accomplished by the application of force under the direction of leaders, in the selection of whom the people will have little or no choice. It is necessary, at first, to enforce the will of community interests until the people become educated and submissive to the new order. Denied all personal rights "collectivism" gives its "instructions'' where to live, where to work, what to do, what to think, and what to say. for the State is the law.
"Socialism" kills. — The doctrine of "socialism" is "collectivism." It tears down the social structure, weakens individual responsibility by subjection to or reliance upon the state in all material, social, and political matters. It compels the thought that at his best man is no better than the worst; he loses his self-respect and his keener sense of moral and ethical values. Ambition is nullified by restriction of choice in occupation and reward of attainment. Initiative, the very backbone of all progress, is smothered in the morass of impersonal service, mass servility, and mob inertia. "Socialism" aims to save individuals from the difficulties or hardships of the struggle for existence and the competition of life through calling upon the state to carry the burden for them. "Equality of condition," the ruling law of "collectivism," is the death knell alike to individual liberty, justice, and progress through the destruction of individual and national character. When the citizens of a nation, seeking comforts and pleasures, find no joy or satisfaction in hard work, the years of that nation are numbered. Free bread and the circus marked the declining days of Rome. A surfeit of food, clothes, comfortable homes, and much time
96. Individualistic government. — "Equality of opportunity" — "Equality of opportunity" carries with it the absolute right of every man to keep what is his own. There can be no confiscation of property without due process of law and just recompense to the rightful owner. Upon this foundation have been based most of the great accomplishments of the past as well as assurance for still greater achievements. Right to private property. — Each citizen enjoys the right to private property. Granted the privilege of working for one's self ambition is fired, initiative is encouraged, labor is not restricted, and the hard thinker and hard worker gets the reward denied the lazy and indifferent, creating thereby classes, caste, poverty, and wealth. Economic freedom. — The individualistic form of government, promotes and guards the individual amid the difficulties and hardships of his struggle for existence and in the competitions of life. The workman is protected because the nation needs his labor and the employer is protected because the nation needs his industry. The productive power of free initiative has full play and a sure reward. Under its protection he finds joy and satisfaction in the fruits of his labor. There is incentive to invention, improvement, and the establishment of families and homes.
When a people are free to undertake things and take advantage of the opportunities open to them wealth, character, and national strength are developed. Protection to home and family. — The social unit of civilization is the family. Under this form of government the institution of marriage and the rights of childhood are respected, the home and the family are protected, and womanhood is inviolable. Respect for religion. — The "individualistic" form of government believes in the exercise of religious freedom and shows tolerance toward and respect for all religious beliefs. The American Government rests upon the deep religious convictions of her people. If it is to continue it will be through unceasing respect for and confidence in the nobler things of life. 97. An American institution. — In the governments of the Old World, conditions which built up a fixed caste system and created an impassable barrier between certain groups of society gave exceptional advantages to the favored and denied to the masses all but a bare existence. The early settlers of America, who came to escape the oppression of this order of society, at first incorporated into the local governments of the Colonies the policy of religious intolerance and class rule. It required 150 years of local experiment in colonial government before the inalienable rights of mankind were sufficiently understood and evaluated to develop the necessary public opinion and power to change the prevailing form of "State" government to that of a "Republican" form, under which "equality of opportunity" became an American institution. "Individualism," an experiment in government, was unknown prior to the independence of America, and has proved its worth by its marked achievements. It tolerated no restriction, recognized no exceptions, and demanded that the son of the farmer or frontiersman have the some opportunity as the son of the merchant prince or land-owning aristocrat. 98. Constitutional guaranties. — The American citizen knows that he and his children may attain any goal to which intelligence, courage, and ability may lead. No overlord will ever bother or hinder their advancement. No succession to power or property is vested in titles of nobility to be transmitted through succeeding generations to favored families. The rich of today may be the wage earners of to-morrow, while the story of the rise of the exceedingly poor to affluence and power is as common as it is true. The young American's future depends upon himself. He may inherit a fortune; his sense and ability alone will enable him to keep it. He may be born in the cabin of the miner or the shack of the mountaineer, yet if within him there burns the unquenchable fires of ambition, courage, and indomitable will there are none who may stop him on the road to success. No person shall * * * be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. — Constitution of the United States. 99. Aristocracy of brains. — The only aristocracy that America will ever recognize is that of "brains" — "the tools to him who can handle them." The tribute in honor and the reward in wealth accorded to brains in this land of opportunity are not equaled in any other country. Brains ask for no "equality of condition," want only "equality of opportunity." 100. The four "I's." — Socially, economically, politically, the world is rapidly changing and in its evolution it requires for its
Conscious of his own strength, he asks no other favor than equal opportunity. When he marries he seeks no dower with his bride. He accepts his place in life with dignity born in the consciousness of his own power to better it. Be it ever so humble, his home is marked with his personality. His children bear the impress of his character, giving assurance that life can contain no difficulties too great for them to master. His is the consciousness of the free born, whether born in the crowded tenement of a congested city, the lonely prairie home of a western farmer, or within the sumptuous palace of a millionaire. Imbued with the spirit of the Nation, he stands upon his own feet and gladly enlists as a soldier in the battle of life. Independence. — The American is the personification of independence. He asks no favors of government or men. He demands his rights and is always ready to uphold them. He has cultivated the habit of self-reliance and is ready to undertake any legitimate enterprise which, in his judgment, has a reasonable chance of success. Resourceful and unafraid, he has ventured into every field of endeavor, cheerfully paying the cost of his failure and as cheerfully sharing with others the rewards of his success. In the spirit of independence America has won her way to leadership in times of peace, and in times of war to a place of honor and respect among the nations. Initiative. — Out of independence has grown a force of individual initiative which has made our great achievements possible. Initiative might well be termed the generator from which has come the power for all our accomplishments. Tradition looks always to that which is old in habits, customs, culture, government, institutions, families, and structures. Initiative is forever putting off the old and putting on the new. It is the mother of creative genius, expressed in science and invention. Without initiative, civilization would first stagnate, then fall rapidly into dissolution. In no community in the world is freedom of initiative enjoyed as fully as in America. Government, laws, customs, traditions operate to enhance that freedom.
Markets become world-wide, competition grows keener, international affairs demand care and diplomacy; nations are awakening; tho magic of science in transportation and communication has made us largely a family of nations with divergent aspirations, varied needs, and growing demands for self-expression. 101. The price of success. — The price of success, whether of individual or nation, is found in work, education, and ideals.
There is more and greater work to be done with each succeeding generation. The achievements of individuals in the past are a challenge to the youth of today. There are still further fields of exploration, adventure, and accomplishment, and a multitude of past achievements to be perfected. Every man possessed of the will to work finds his opportunity awaiting him. Education. — Education he must have. The time is past when hope of success can be offered to the ignorant. With each succeeding year the necessity for special accomplishments and particular fitness is more pronounced. Science has so far advanced as to become broken into many divisions, each requiring special training. Applied to every branch of government, industry, and even society, the demand is for education, that intelligence may be developed and applied to its full capacity; for in no other way may progress be assured, and progress is the purpose of life. Ideals. — Work and education are not sufficient to equip either the individual or nation for the accomplishment of the purposes of life. There must also be the inspiration and governing force of ideals. Without ideals there can be no lasting achievements. Without ideals there can be neither understanding, tolerance, justice, nor brother" hood between individuals or nations. Without high ideals there can be no worth-while aspirations, no true nobility of character, no spirit of unselfish service, all of which are essential to real progress. 102. The citizen's privilege. — Emerson said, "Hitch your wagon to a star." The citizen should demand of himself and for himself tho best that life affords, and devote his energies in an evergrowing measure to public service, for the real joy of life is service to our fellow men. This is the land of "equality of opportunity." The citizen alone can determine the measure of his participation in freedom's field. What he does and how he does it will be dependent upon his will to work, the thoroughness of his education, and the quality of his ideals. We are a country of 118,000,000 people, speaking one language, having an enormous consuming power and an adequate transportation system for prompt distribution. We are not restricted within our wide limits by artificial barriers. We produce where it is most advantageous and distribute to the consumer where he may live. Here in the East we may eat the apples and use the timber from the Northwest, and the Pacific slope may buy cotton cloth from the Carolinas and motors from Detroit. Nowhere in the world does there exist so large, so varied, and so unrestricted a market as the United States. There is a force underlying these factors and one which to me is all important. I mean the initiative and energy of the American people. We are willing to work. We have that divine restlessness which will not permit us to accept things as they are but drives us to find something better. We are constantly improving our machinery, our methods, ourselves. Here no man accepts the level into which he has been born as fixing his status for life. Ability is quickly recognized; to rise is easy. * * * There is movement, not fixation, in our life in America. — Andrew W. Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury. QUESTIONNAIRE What is the chief purpose of government? What is the fundamental principle of "collectivists" government? Explain. Describe four of the principal elements of "collectivism." What is the general effect of "socialism"? Describe. Should the government provide the means of livelihood? State reasons. Has any government the right to restrict the exercise of the power of individual initiative? What is the fundamental principle of "individualistic" government? Name and describe five of the principal elements of "individualistic" government. Explain tho origin of "individualism" as an experiment in government. In what manner does the Constitution guarantee political, economic, and social freedom for the American citizen? Name four characteristics of the American character. What determines the success either of an individual or a nation? In what way are high ideals essential to real progress? State the synonym for "America." What responsibility does freedom of initiative place upon the American citizen?
Paragraph Historical background -------------------------------------------------- 103 Slow development of necessary knowledge ------------------------- 104 The Declaration of Independence, a protest ------------------------- 105 Independence of the Colonies. Its enemies. Its survival. Liberty defined --------------------------------------------------------- 106 Fundamental law. Equality. Personal liberty -------------------------------------------------------- 107 Freedom of action. Religious liberty ------------------------------------------------------- 108 Separation of church and state. Religion and national defense. Freedom of speech and press ----------------------------------------- 109 Abuses.
Propaganda. Restriction of abuses. Economic liberty ------------------------------------------------------- 110 Property rights safeguarded. Political liberty --------------------------------------------------------- 111 Equal participation. Safeguards to our liberties -------------------------------------------- 112 103. Historical background. — The historical background of liberty and independence is the story of the human race in every stage of its development and in every corner of the earth. It is told in the ages-old pyramids of Egypt, builded upon the backs of human slaves; in the philosophies of Plato and Socrates; and uncovered in the catacombs of Rome. In the German forests it was planted deep in the hearts of Saxon and Norman, and there given its first real semblance of form. England, in the days of the Saxon and Norman conquest, in the time of Cromwell and Elizabeth, laid a still broader foundation upon which to build the structure of self-government. Slowly there was evolved an appreciation of government incorporation of the rights of individuals into fixed laws or practices. Yet there remained the iron heel of government to crush those whose demand for independence and liberty exceeded that granted by the will of the ruling King or Parliament. 104. Slow development of necessary knowledge. — It remained, however, a work still to be accomplished at the time of the first settlements in America, where in the next 150 years slow progress was to be made in developing the necessary knowledge upon which liberty and independence could safely rest. 105, The Declaration of Independence, a protest. — The Declaration of Independence was a protest against the abridgment of such rights as the colonists claimed as subjects of the British Crown. Their anger was directed against Parliament rather than the King because restrictions were placed by law upon the colonists which were not imposed upon citizens of Great Britain residing in the mother country. These operated solely for the benefit of the long-established home government and institutions. Spurred by the spirit of independence engendered through the bitter experiences and necessary self-reliance required in their century-and-a-half battle to conquer the American wilderness, and fired by the indignities and injustice to which they had long been compelled to submit, they threw off the yoke of oppression and set up a government that would forever guard them against tyranny, however it might seek to impose its will. "When in the Course of human events. it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitled them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation — We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor." — Declaration of Independence. No man sought or wished for more than to defend his own. None hoped to plunder or spoil * * * and we all know that it could not have lived a single day under any well-founded imputation of passion. — Webster.
106. Liberty defined. — There are two kinds of liberty — absolute liberty: That of the savage, in which any individual may act as he pleases; and civil liberty: That of a civilized community in which human actions are regulated by law for the good of all — subject only to such restraints as a solemn and tolerant judgment determines to be essential. Political liberty is no other than natural liberty so far restrained by human laws and no further, as is necessary and expedient for the general advantage of the public. — Blackstone. Liberty does not free the people from the necessity for control, but it places a heavy burden of responsibility upon the individual for self-control. It is not license to do as one pleases. Through developed "intelligence" man has power to control his baser and more selfish instincts, compelling their exercise and restriction in the interest of society. Minority control exercises its will until such time as general intelligence becomes sufficiently informed to establish an order of society with a larger and more even distribution of benefit to all, and the law of will (force) is supplanted by the law of reason. As defined in the Preamble to the Constitution, liberty is the absence of arbitrary human restraints upon personal conduct other than those imposed by the authority of just laws, obedience to which is an essential part of it. Fundamental law. — The rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness are beyond the right of any government to legally usurp or infringe. To secure this (liberty) is the main business of governments and the reason for their institution. If they fall in this they have failed in all. — Blackstone. These principles were written by our fathers into a constitution of government, for the first time in human history, when they wrote the Constitution and it became the fundamental law of a new nation dedicated to the proposition that "all men are created equal" and that "government derives its just powers from the consent of the governed."
In responding to Douglas's question, "What do you mean — 'all men are created equal?'" Lincoln replied: "I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not intend to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not mean to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what respect they did consider all men created equal — equal with "certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." This they said and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were then actually enjoying that equality, nor yet that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon. They simply meant to declare the right, so that enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit." 107. Personal liberty. — Freedom of action. — Every citizen is on an equal footing as to privileges and opportunity. Any denial of such rights results from either the limited ability of the individual to take full advantage of opportunity, or because of prejudices in no way a part of the ruling law of our land. Born free citizens, or acquiring that right through naturalization, we have full freedom of action — without infringement upon the rights of others — to reside or travel at home or abroad under the protection and with all privileges accorded by our Government, regardless of race, color, religion, or social station. Full opportunity is here given to every citizen to work out his own ideals and ideas. To the native born this privilege is accepted as a matter of no great significance, for he is wholly unfamiliar with the laws, traditions, and customs that direct and restrict individual action of citizens in foreign countries. The American citizen frequently changes his occupation. His very liberty keeps him on the alert for an opportunity to better his financial or social status. The change is one of occupation, not of personality; his pride and self-respect are not involved. 108. Religious liberty. — No greater liberty was ever conferred on a people than that of freedom to worship according to the dictates of one's own conscience. The first amendment to the Constitution declares that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibit the free exercise thereof." All persons have the privilege to entertain any religious belief, practice any religious rite, teach any religious doctrine, which is not subversive of morality and does not interfere with the personal rights of others. However, this liberty can not be "invoked as a protection against legislation for the punishment of acts inimical to the peace, good order, and morals of society," because professed doctrines of religious belief are not superior to the laws of the land. No person is permitted to become a law unto himself, nor may he in the name of religion, or through a religious ceremony, violate the law. Religious liberty does not include the right to introduce and carry out every scheme or purpose which persons see fit to claim as a part of their religious system. While there is no legal authority to constrain belief, no one can lawfully stretch his own liberty of action so as to interfere with that of his neighbors, or violate peace or good order. — United States Supreme Court. Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they can not interfere with mere religious beliefs and opinions, they may with practices. — United States Supreme Court. Separation of church and state. — The separation of church and state is a fundamental principle of American Government. Neither is permitted to dictate to or exercise power over the other. In no other way can religious liberty be preserved. Religion and national defense. — There is no place for the doctrine of "noncooperation." Religious beliefs will not excuse any citizen from rendering service in the defense of the country, although Congress has power at its discretion to exempt him. 109. Freedom of speech and press. — The right to act, to think, to speak, to print, is the surest way to protect the liberties, and continue the full measure of independence which America so richly possesses. In these rights lies the means of creating a public opinion representative of the entire Nation. This liberty is indispensable to further social, economic, and political development. Clash of opinions creates interest and thought on all public questions. A realization of the force of public opinion expressed by the ballot, awakens a sense of responsibility that compels the best minds to give careful study to any subject that vitally concerns our Nation. Through the present means of communication, the people are daily informed in every matter of national or international import. Abuses. — This privilege does not permit the publication of libels or other matter injurious to public morals or private reputation. Like all liberties granted under the broad principles of the Constitution, these rights are abused to the detriment of the best interests of the people. Propaganda. — Propaganda floods our country from every conceivable source. Active and vociferous agencies have been organized for the express purpose of advancing doctrines absolutely not in accord with the fixed principles of our Nation. In the most persistent manner they seek to tear down rather than build, to destroy rather than improve. One of their most subtly dangerous features is that it is so camouflaged as to make it appear to have an innocent purpose. To prevent such activities during the World War, Congress found it necessary to pass the espionage act of 1917 for the safety of the State and the successful outcome of the struggle. We carefully supervise every agency whose business may in any degree affect the physical health of our people. Equal care should be exercised over all agencies which in any manner may affect our social, economic, or political life.
The first amendment "can not have been, and obviously was not, intended to give immunity for every possible use of language." — Justice Holmes. Blackstone's maxims, which help to interpret the present limitation on speech and press: (1) Between public and private rights the public rights must prevail. (2) Liberty to all, but preference to none. (3) Those offenses should be most severely punished which are most difficult to guard against. 110. Economic liberty. — Property rights safeguarded. — Under no other government are property rights of the individual so provided with safeguards' for their full protection. Property is at the base of civilization. Without incentive of right to its private possession and full protection against confiscation no progress would be made in material betterment. Economic liberty, the power of initiative, and the protection of property rights have developed a philosophy of life peculiar to America — the "dignity of work." Every American is expected to be a worker. Based upon the constitutional assurance of the security of property, finance and labor have joined in the creation of industry, making America the richest nation in the world. Her wealth has been distributed to the enrichment of her entire population.
Every citizen enjoys the protection and benefits of our municipal, State, and National Governments. Any suggestion of racial or religious differences is frowned upon. It is the sincere wish of the majority that tolerance and understanding weld our people of all nationalities into a social, economic, and political unity for the purpose of developing a strong national character and a race of men and women whose ideals and attainments shall be an inspiration and help to the peoples of all the earth. The greatest degree of political liberty is secured by wise laws properly enforced. Anarchy destroys liberty because it is lawlessness and confusion, and utter disregard of all government. 112. Safeguards to our liberties. — By clinging to the ideas and ideals which animated the framers of the Declaration of Independence, we can assure not only peace within, but national security and respect from other nations. When we fail to adequately comprehend the principles incident to our Government, its fundamental ideals which have made our Government, the United States of America faces anarchy and destruction. Let our object be our country, our whole country, and nothing but our country, and by the blessing of God may that country itself become a vast and splendid monument, not of oppression and terror, but of wisdom, of peace, and of liberty, upon which the world may gaze with admiration forever. — Webster, QUESTIONNAIRE Describe the historical background of human liberty. What foundation is necessary for liberty and independence? What was the Declaration of Independence? When are a people free and independent? How do the "enemies within" show disrespect for the Declaration of Independence? How, only, can the principles set forth in this document survive? Name and describe the two kinds of liberty. Does liberty mean freedom from control? Explain. How is liberty defined in the Preamble to the Constitution? By whom and when? Define personal liberty. What is meant by religious liberty? Do religious beliefs excuse a citizen from rendering service in defense of the country? Explain. What is the relation of church and state? Is freedom of speech and press beneficial to our national life? What are some of its abuses? Describe. Can these abuses be restricted? How? State Blackstone's maxims which help interpret the present limitations on speech and press. What safeguards are given to property? What is meant by political liberty? By what instrumentality can the greatest degree of political liberty be secured?
Paragraph Progress of government ----------------------------------------------- 113 Government by autocracy. Government of laws. Sources of the Constitution ------------------------------------------- 114 The purpose of government ------------------------------------------ 115 Paternalism. The Preamble to the Constitution ------------------------------------ 116 "We, the people." "A more perfect Union." "Justice." "Domestic tranquillity." "Common defense." "General welfare." "Blessings of liberty." The American philosophy of government --------------------------- 117 113. Progress of government. — In the beginning of human history, with needs and wants limited to food and shelter, man's dominating impulse was the preservation of life. His social instinct led to the establishment of families, groups, and tribes. Transmitting habits, traditions, customs, and superstitions to succeeding generations, there came to be formed definite and distinctive racial types with fixed governing principles. Governments of a kind were set up, order was created, but with the accumulation of property, and increasing wants, conflicts occurred, the strong despoiling the weak. Alliances for defense and offense were formed. Agreements between rulers and subjects and forms of treaties with nations brought about a more or less defined code of conduct and law, invariably enforced to the benefit of those who held the power. Government by autocracy. — Selfish and often cruel leaders preyed upon the weak and ignorant in the accomplishment of their ambitious designs. Autocracy held power through appeal to the emotions engendered by pomp and glitter of the court, or by fear created through control of military forces and the means of livelihood. By various methods the rights of citizenship were confined to the prescribed limits dictated by "will" (force) until increasing intelligence within the ranks of the people began to exert a counteracting influence. The historical development of the "ancient liberties" of the English people, establishing individual rights, began with the meeting of King John and the Barons on the field of Runnymede in 1215 A. D., where the Magna Charta was signed, which guaranteed rights beyond the power of the king to take away. By successive steps, in protection of these rights, came the act of Parliament (1295), Petition of Rights (1628), habeas corpus act (1679), Bill of Bights (1689), and the act of settlement (1701). These liberties did not originate with charters, but were simply confirmed by them and made the "fixed principles of freedom." Restrictions of government on the life of the people created caste, favoritism and taxation became oppressive, and men left Europe and came to America.
Under the Constitution a "Government of laws and not of men" was formulated out of the experiences of the centuries in which feudalism, despotism, autocracy had given form to the ruling forces of government. 114. Sources of the Constitution. — The underlying principles of the Constitution were not formulated in a day. The three great American charters of liberty contained the fundamental principles of American government: "Bill for establishing religious freedom in Virginia," "Virginia Bill of Rights," and "Declaration of Independence." Before the Constitutional Convention met in Philadelphia, many plans and suggestions were drafted and presented to the convention. In addition to this careful preparation after more than a century of self-government, there were in the convention men of extraordinary natural ability and wide experience, like Washington, Franklin, and Hamilton. There were men who had studied law at the Inner Temple in London, who had been educated in the University of Edinburgh, who had been graduated from American colleges, who had been governors of States, chief justices of supreme courts, and men who had achieved distinction at the bar and in business life. Edmund Burke stated in the House of Commons in March, 1776, that more books of law were going to America than any other kind. Of the 55 members of the Constitutional Convention, 31 were lawyers. Blackstone's Commentaries were taught by Chancellor Wythe in William and Mary College before the Declaration of Independence. John Marshall, Thomas Jefferson, and James Monroe were among his pupils. When our Constitution was written Harvard College (1636) had been sending out, educated young men for just a century and a, half, Willlam and Mary College (1603) had been graduating learned youths for almost a century, Tale
115. The purpose of government. — A correct understanding of the purposes of government furnishes a remedy for erroneous and dangerous ideas threatening this country. Government is instituted for the common benefit, maintaining order, and protecting life, liberty, and property. To secure liberty is the main business of governments and the reason for their institution. — Blackstone. Paternalism. — The paternalism of communism which provides both property and subsistence for the individual is not a proper function of government. It results only in individual irresponsibility. 116. The Preamble to the Constitution. — The Preamble to the Constitution is a most accurate and comprehensive statement of the purpose of government. It explicitly sets forth the fundamental purposes for which government is primarily organized. The brevity, simplicity, and directness of its original draft, after 150 years of experience, require no change. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure Domestic Tranquility, provide for the Common Defense, promote the General Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United States of America. — Preamble to the Constitution.
Under the Articles of Confederation the State assumed control. A single State might exercise veto power over the will of all the others. In the government set up under the new Constitution the power and rights of the people are the source and final authority. It derives its "just powers from the consent of the governed." For the first tune in human history "the people" assumed control and government became subject to their will. Nowhere is American independence and self-reliance better exemplified than in the words, "We, the people." The people, the highest authority known to our system, from whom all our institutions spring and upon whom they depend, formed it. — President Monroe. Its language, "We, the people," is the institution of one great consolidated national government of the people of all the States, instead of a government by compact with the States for its agents. — Patrick Henry. "A more perfect Union." — In the original federation the States were but loosely joined. The Constitution was a demand for more effective control of the Union by the Government. In the efficacy and permanency of your Union a government for the whole is indispensable * * *. You have improved upon your first essay (Articles of Confederation) by the adoption of a constitution of government « » » for the efficacious management of your common concerns. * * * Indignantly frown upon the first dawning of every attempt to alienate any portion of our country from the rest or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now link together the various parts. — Washington — Farewell Address. In the course of the Civil War the Southern States sought to dissolve our Union; President Lincoln sought to preserve our Union. The States have their status in the Union, and they have no other legal status * * *. The Union, and not themselves separately, procured their independence and liberty. * * * The Union is older than any of the States and, in fact, created them as States. — Abraham Lincoln — Message to Congress, July 4, 1861. The right of secession was forever settled by the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution, which declares, "All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." The National Government is not an assemblage of States, but of individuals. To refuse allegiance to the United States is to be a traitor to the Nation. However, in the dual capacity of citizenship, we render service as citizens of both the State in which we hold legal residence and the United States. Each of our 48 States retains its own sovereignty in all matters relating exclusively to State affairs, in which it is protected by its own constitution. In all interstate, national, or international affairs both the citizen and the State owe allegiance to the Union. "Justice." — Our Government, assures "justice" in that it is a government of laws, not of men. In the heat of passion or sectional interest, in clashes between groups or questions of policy, no minority or bloc may enforce its will. Should a majority seek to injure the rights of an individual citizen, the power of veto resting in the President, or the power of the Supreme Court as an unbiased tribunal, will insist that justice be done. A series of checks and balances, which prevent the selfish interests of either individuals or groups from exercising their will to the injustice of another, is provided by the Constitution. Wherever there is an interest and power to do wrong, wrong will generally be done, and not less readily by a powerful and interested party than by a powerful and interested prince. — James Madison. In questions of power, then, let no more be heard of confidence in man, but bind him down from mischief to the chains of the Constitution. — Thomas Jefferson. "Domestic tranquillity." — At the conclusion of the Revolutionary War the Colonial States were bankrupt. Foreign credit was exhausted and could not be reestablished until a responsible central government was created. Soldiers remained unpaid long after the war was ended. Colonies quarreled with each other over duties imposed upon the goods sold or bartered. Chaos and anarchy, disillusion, and despair prevailed, all because of lack of proper organization and power in government. The Government established under the Articles of Confederation "defrayed all expenses out of the common treasury" to which each State was supposed to contribute, but this was done in full only by New York and Pennsylvania. All nonenforceable obligations were left to conscience, individual or collective. "Domestic tranquillity" requires a measure of enforced responsibility, mutual faith, and harmonious and prosperous conditions. These are provided under the Constitution through the powers conferred upon the National Government regulating interstate affairs, making interchange of commodities, communication, transportation, and freedom of residence, occupation, and industry equal to all. "Domestic tranquillity" is further assured by religious freedom, free speech, and free press, thereby establishing interchange of thought which results in the creation of a national public opinion and brings within its influence every citizen, regardless of race, religion, financial condition, or social qualification. "Common defense." — A country worth fighting for to establish was worth fighting for to preserve. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts' and Excises, to pay the debts and provide for the Common Defense and Welfare of the United States. * * * To declare War, grant letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on Land and Water; to raise and support Armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years. * * * To provide and maintain a Navy; To make rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval forces; To provide for calling forth the Militia; to execute the laws of the Union, to suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the Militia. * * * — Constitution, Article I, section 8. Attention is especially called to the limited period of two years as the length of time to be covered by any appropriation of money for the military forces. Without the consent of the people through their Representatives in Congress, any army created would fall to pieces for lack of funds. A great deal is said about the effort to "militarize" America through carrying out the provisions of the national defense act of 1920. This act was created by the people, for the people, to be paid for by the people. It can be killed by repeal or by refusal to make necessary appropriations. In the last analysis the people are the military force of the United States; their employees, the Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserves, are working for them, and in absolute obedience to rules and regulations laid down by their agent, the Congress. The United States is not solicitous, it never has been, about the methods or ways in which that protection shall be accomplished; whether by formal treaty stipulation or by formal convention, whether by the action of judicial tribunals or by that of military force. Protection, in fact, to American lives and property is the sole point upon which the United States is tenacious. — William M. Evarts (1878). "General welfare." — The United States is a family of Commonwealths. Each State is possessed of its own natural resources, in the development of which it is necessary for its own best interests to have the full cooperation of every, other State in exchange of raw materials, finished products, and farm produce. Its great land areas and mighty rivers are frequently the concern of several States or of the entire Nation. It is within the power of Congress to appropriate funds for constructing canals, river and harbor development, and control irrigation projects where more than one State is interested, hard roads, and Postal Service; to regulate communications and transportation; and, through its various departments, perform such other services as will result in benefit to all citizens. This is not paternalism, but that protection of person and property which enables the citizen to obtain the greatest possible returns in the exercise of his own initiative. "Blessings of liberty." — To secure the "blessings" of liberty was the fundamental purpose of the makers of the Constitution and its subsequent adoption. They include all the rights and privileges that a citizen of this country enjoys — a voice in the Government; freedom to worship according to the dictates of the individual conscience; freedom of speech and of the press; the lack of restriction upon all inherent individual rights. The liberty of America is not that which permits the individual citizen to do as he pleases. He may so long as he does not interfere with the liberty of others. The liberty of the individual ends where the rights of others begin. We all declare for liberty, but in using the word we do not all mean the same thing. With some the word liberty may mean for each man to do as he pleases with himself and the product of his labor; while with others the same word may mean for some men to do as they please with other men and the product of other men's labor. Here are two not only different but incompatible things called by the same name — liberty. And it follows that each of the things is, by the respective parties, called by two different and incompatible names — liberty and tyranny. The shepherd drives the wolf from the sheep's throat, for which the sheep thanks the shepherd as his liberator, while the wolf denounces him for the same act as the destroyer of liberty. — Abraham Lincoln. The "blessings" which the citizen enjoys under our form of government are secured through "liberty under law," the enforcement of which is their only safeguard. The purpose of our Government is to protect (not to provide) the property of its citizens; to guard his person (not to provide his subsistence) while he acquires the means of livelihood; to give every citizen equal opportunity in his chosen work and assure him of equal standing before the law. Our Government is the most nearly perfect of all in securing individual rights and insuring the blessings of liberty. In no other nation is equal opportunity and equal protection assured, with such equal division of reward for labor and services rendered. 117. The American philosophy of government. — The American philosophy of government emphasizes that — (1) Individual rights are sacred and it is necessary to establish a government in the protection of these rights. (2) All the powers of government are derived from the people, who retain the supreme authority over all delegated powers of government. (3) Individual rights are not permitted to be exercised in the contravention of the rights of society. Individual liberty is always bounded by social obligations. (4) Government is exercised for the purpose of protecting the individual in his rights. (5) Governmental powers are delegated to the National, State, or local authority, and are limited in their exercise by provisions of the Constitution as interpreted and defined by the Supreme Court. (6) All rights not thus delegated are recognized as the inviolable right of the individual citizen and can not be usurped by any governmental power.
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