United nations sc

Summary information relevant to the risk profile

1.4Sources

1. Production, trade, stockpiles

24. 
    Global industrial c-decaBDE consumption peaked in the early 2000's (Earnshaw 2013). Yet, due to limited regulatory restrictions, c-decaBDE is still used worldwide (Table 2.1-2.3, UNEP/POPS/POPRC.10/INF5). Past, production data indicate that about 75% of all the world production of PBDEs was c-decaBDE (RPA 2014). Total production of c-decaBDE in the period 1970-2005 was between 1.1-1.25 million tonnes, similar to the scale of production of PCBs (POPRC 2010c, Breivik 2002). Globally, the total market demand for c-decaBDE differs considerably between countries and continents (Table 2.2 and 2.3, UNEP/POPS/POPRC.10/INF5).
    
25. 
    The overall scale of c-decaBDE production today is currently unknown, and data on production, trade and stockpiles is only available for some countries. There is also very little information on the tonnages that may be imported in mixtures (chemical formulations, also resins, polymers and other substrates) and articles (either in semi-finished articles, materials or components, or in finished products). Production facilities for BFRs exist in all global regions (e.g. ACAP 2007, RPA 2014 , Annex E IPEN). At present it is unknown how many of these produce c-decaBDE. Among the main BFR producing countries China and India are known to produce and export c-decaBDE (Xiang 2007, Chen 2007b, Xia 2005, Zou 2007, Annex E IPEN and China). Japan produces c-decaBDE, but consumes all domestically (Annex E Japan). Production of c-decaBDE no longer takes place in the EU or Canada and continues to be phased out in the United States (ECB 2002, ECHA 2012a,b, ECA 2008, US EPA 2012).
    
26. 
    At present, China is the largest producer and supplier of c-decaBDE with an annual production of around 21,000 tonnes (Ni 2013). Around 20 different Chinese companies claim to be suppliers of cdecaBDE (Annex E IPEN). Japan produces an estimated 600 metric tonnes of c-decaBDE per year (Annex E Japan), and there are currently two Japanese producers (Annex E IPEN). In 2002, the demand for c-decaBDE in Japan was 2200 tonnes/year and the stock level was about 60,000 tonnes (Sakai 2006). In 2013, the c-decaBDE import to Japan was 1,000 tonnes adding to a total consumption of 1,600 assuming that no exports occurred. India has six manufacturers and or suppliers (Annex E IPEN), but total production is unknown. In Europe, production of c-decaBDE ceased in 1999, but c-decaBDE is still imported in considerable quantities (ECB 2002, ECHA 2012a, c, RPA 2014 (in press)). In the United States the main producers and importers committed to end all uses by the end of 2013. In 2012 the national production volume which includes both domestic production and import was 8215 tonnes/year. In Canada manufacture of octa-, nona- and decaBDE was banned in 2008 and, the three main manufacturers have committed to voluntarily phase-out all exports to Canada by 2013 (ECA 2008, 2013).
    
27. 
    Besides any stocks of pure c-decaBDE, substantial stocks of c-decaBDE are also present in treated articles in the technosphere (UK EA 2009, Sakai. 2006).
    

1. Uses

28. 
    C-decaBDE is a general purpose additive flame retardant, that is physically combined with the material in which it is used to inhibit the ignition and slow the rate at which flames spread. It is compatible with a wide variety of materials. Applications include plastics/polymers/composites, textiles, adhesives, sealants, coatings and inks (e.g. ECHA 2012c, 2013a, RPA 2014 (in press), Sakai 2006, Table 2.4, UNEP/POPS/POPRC.10/INF5).
    
29. 
    End uses in plastics/ polymers include housings of computers and TV sets, wires and cables, pipes and carpets (BSEF 2013, US EPA 2014, Table 2.5, UNEP/POPS/POPRC.10/INF5). Typically cdecaBDE is used in plastics/polymers at loadings of 10-15% by weight, though in some cases loadings as high as 20% have been reported (ECHA 2012c). In a Japanese study, c-decaBDE is reported to account for about 98% of the bromine content found in plastic parts of older TVs (Tasaki 2004). BDE-209 is also found in products made from recycled plastics, including food contact materials (Samsonek and Puype, 2013).
    
30. 
    In the textile sector, c-decaBDE can be used to treat a wide range of synthetic, blended and natural fibres (ECHA 2013a). Main end uses are upholstery, window blinds, curtains, mattress textiles, tentage (e.g. military tents and textiles, also commercial marquees, tents and canvasses) and transportation (e.g. interior fabrics in cars, rail passenger rolling stock and aircraft). The most common method of applying flame retardants to textiles is back coating. The amount that is applied will usually be in the range 7.5-20%. Padding processes and printing processes may also be used to apply flame retardant treatments (ECHA 2012a,c).
    
31. 
    Information from public consultations in Europe report that c-decaBDE can be used in adhesives in the aeronautic sector for civil and defense applications (ECHA 2012d). Norwegian Authorities also identified uses of c-decaBDE in the adhesive layer of reflective tapes on work wear which are used as fire fighter uniforms, by the staff at oil platforms, in the energy sector, etc (CPAN 2012a). The reflective tapes contained c-decaBDE in the range 1-5% (by weight of reflective material). Other uses can be coatings used in applications for the building and construction sector and in inks (RPA 2014 (in press)).
    
32. 
    According to VECAP data, textiles and plastics account for 52% and 48% of the c-decaBDE volume sold in Europe, respectively (VECAP 2012). In Japan 60% of the c-decaBDE is used in vehicle seats, 19% in construction materials and 15% in textiles. The remaining 6% is used for other purposes. In Switzerland 45% of c-decaBDE consumed were in electrical and electronic (EE) products, 30% was in imported motor vehicles and 25% in construction material (Buser 2007b). The consumption of cdecaBDE in the United States could be broken down as follows (excluding import in articles): automotive and transportation 26%, building and construction 26%, textiles 26%, electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) 13% and others 9% (Levchick 2010).
    

1. Releases to the environment

33. 
    As an additive flame retardant, c-decaBDE is not chemically bound to the product or the material in which it is used. It therefore has the potential to ‘leak’ to the surrounding environment. Emissions of c-decaBDE to the environment may occur at all its life cycle stages, e.g. during production, formulation and other first- and second-line uses at industrial/professional sites, as well as during service life of articles, their disposal as waste and during recycling operations (ECHA 2012c, Ren 2014, Gao 2013, VECAP 2010a,b, 2014). The release and distribution of c-decaBDE to the environment via these routes is confirmed by monitoring data (see Section 2.3.1-2.3.4), and are likely to occur over a long time frame.
    
34. 
    As a general purpose flame retardant c-decaBDE is used and released to the surrounding environment at many industrial and professional sites (e.g. VECAP 2012, 2014, Li 2013, Gao 2011, Odabasi 2009). In the EU alone there are more than 100 sites of second-line use (compounders/formulators, master batchers, injection moulders and finishers) (ECHA 2012a). Globally there are additional point sources (Annex E IPEN) contributing to the emissions of c-decaBDE including production sites for c-decaBDE as well as other industrial sources such as second-line users, recycling facilities and steel-production plants as well as other metallurgical facilities (e.g. Odabasi 2009, Wang 2010d, Lin 2012, Ren 2014, Gao 2011, Tang 2014). Elevated BDE-209 levels have been measured in the vicinity of industrial facilities (e.g. Zhang 2013d, Wang 2011d), and although VECAP estimates suggests otherwise (VECAP 2010a,b, 2012, 2014), the releases from industrial point sources to the surrounding environment can be considerable (ACAP 2007). For example, in 2003 the production of c-decaBDE in the United States released as much as 31 tonnes of c-decaBDE to the atmosphere alone (ACAP 2007).
    
35. 
    Emissions of c-decaBDE during the service life and upon disposal of products are considered to be substantial. In the recent EU assessment it was found that service life is the main source of release, followed by production of articles and waste stage (RPA 2014). An earlier assessment by the UK Environment Agency indicated that the main source of emissions were from landfill and waste incineration, followed by releases of waste water and releases to air from articles during service-life. Polymers and textiles in articles and waste were the main contributors (UK EA 2009). Similar findings are reported also by others (ECHA 2012c, ACAP 2007, Sakai 2006, OSPAR 2009). In addition, recycling can also be an important source of environmental releases of BDE-209 (Yu 2008, Gao 2011, Tang 2014 and references therein).
    
36. 
    Controlled product testing has indicated low or no emission of BDE-209 from synthetic, vulcanised rubber products (Kemmlein 2003). However, BDE-209 has been shown to be emitted to the surrounding environment from textiles and TV-casings (Kemmlein 2006, Kajiwara 2013a). Higher levels of BDE-209 are moreover typically reported in indoor environments with many c-decaBDE containing products such as office environments, airplane interiors etc. (Björklund 2012, Allen 2013). BDE-209 is also reported to be the most prevalent PBDE congener in house dust and indoor air (e.g. Harrad 2010, Fredriksen 2009a, Besis and Samara 2012, Fromme 2009, Coakley 2013, EFSA 2011). BDE-209 in indoor environments is also a significant source to BDE-209 pollution in urban outdoor air (Björklund 2012, Cousins 2014), and to human exposure (see Section 2.3.4). Based on measurements in sewage sludge the estimated releases of BDE-209 from the technosphere, in Europe, are 168.6 tonnes annually and 4122 mg annually per person or 0.2% of annual c-decaBDE usage in Europe (Ricklund 2008). Hence, use of c-decaBDE in the production of textiles and electronics result in environmental releases of BDE-209 and other PBDEs, either during production or directly from articles or during disposal stage (RPA 2014 (in press), VECAP 2010) and thus contribute to environmental relases and transboundary air pollution. Physical abrasion, disintegration and weathering as well as photolysis, increased temperatures and termal stress are all factors that contribute to release of cdecaBDE and lower brominated PBDEs from products (Earnshaw 2013, Chen 2013, Kajiwara 2008, 2013 a, b).
    
37. 
    PBDEs are not removed during waste-water treatment (Danon-Schaffer 2007, Kim 2013b) and a substantial amount of c-decaBDE emitted from products during service life and as waste ends up in waste-water treatment plants (WWTP) through the disposal of wash water from contaminated indoor dust, leachate from landfilled PBDE-containing products and discharge from industrial sites processing PBDE containing material, and ultimately biosolids (Kim 2013a,b). In line with this, elevated levels of BDE-209 is reported in sediment near the outflow of WWTP and sludge (biosoil) is found to be an important pathway for BDE-209 emissions to soil when applied as an agricultural fertilizer (Sellström 2005, de Wit 2005).
    
38. 
    Emission estimates are available for some countries (e.g. ECB 2002, Morf 2003, 2007, 2008, Palm 2002, Sakai 2006 as cited in Earnshaw 2013, Buser 2007a). A comparison of available European estimates shows large differences in predicted environmental emissions of BDE-209 to all environmental compartments and for air in particular (three orders of magnitude, Earnshaw 2013). The dissimilarities likely reflect country specific differences in production, use and waste disposal as well as uncertainties/ differences in emission estimates and overall suggest that release estimates should be viewed in light of environmental monitoring data.
    
39. 
    With regards to time-trends, emission estimates for the period 1970 to 2020 calculated by Earnshaw (2013) using a dynamic substance flow analysis model and available consumption data indicate that BDE-209 atmospheric emissions in Europe increased steadily from the 1970s and reached a peak in 2004 at 10 tonnes/ year. Emissions to soil and the hydrosphere are lower but follow a similar trend of increase from the 1970s, peaking in the late 2000s and declining thereafter. Emissions to soil peaked at 4 tonnes/year in 2000 whilst those to the hydrosphere peaked in the 2010s at 3.5 tonnes/ year. In Switzerland maximum emissions is estimated to have occurred in the 1990's (Buser 2007b, Morf 2007). 31 tonnes of BDE-209 were released to air in 2003 alone according to the US EPA Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) Public Data Release (ACAP 2007), in 2011 the release to air was down to 3.1 tonnes (http://www.epa.gov/tri/).
    
40. 
    Further information on potential emission sources and environmental levels resulting from releases of c-decaBDE to the environment is provided in Section 2.3.1. In general, as indicated by measured environmental levels, releases to the environment are higher in industrialized and urban areas than in rural and agricultural areas where there are fewer sources (see Section 2.3.1). Environmental levels are typically lowest in remote regions, such as the Arctic.