What is temperament?



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What is temperament?

  • What is temperament?

  • Describe your temperament using Thomas/Chess, Fox/Henderson or Caspi types

  • What is goodness-of-fit (give examples)?

  • What are pros and cons of laboratory behavioral and parent report measures of temperament?

  • What are three types of infants distinguished by Fox/Henderson and how do they develop?

    • Reference the DVD illustrating these infants from class.
  • Do you favor a person-centered or variable-centered approach to temperament and why?

  • What does 3 year old behavioral type predict in Caspi‘s studies?

  • What does it mean that the child is father to the man?



Underlying, biologically based (heritable) individual differences in the behavioral characteristics of the individual that is relatively invariant over time and across situations

  • Underlying, biologically based (heritable) individual differences in the behavioral characteristics of the individual that is relatively invariant over time and across situations



An infant’s characteristic style of approaching and reacting to people and situations.

  • An infant’s characteristic style of approaching and reacting to people and situations.

      • Personality-to-be?
  • “To different men, in the same situation, different modes of response appear natural and even inevitable."



Calling something temperament does not make it any more ‘biological’ or inherited than any other construct

  • Calling something temperament does not make it any more ‘biological’ or inherited than any other construct

  • Temperament is a measured construct with particular characteristics

    • Stable/Unstable
    • More heritable/Less heritable


Difficult Child (10%)

  • Difficult Child (10%)

    • irritable, irregular biological rhythms
    • intense response to new situations
  • Easy Child (40%)

    • happy, regular biological rhythms
    • accept new situations
  • Slow to warm up, inhibited, child (15%)

    • Reluctant/hesitant in new situations
  • New York Longitudinal Study (Thomas & Chess, 1984)

  • Which one are you?





The “meshing” of temperament with environmental properties, expectations, and demands

  • The “meshing” of temperament with environmental properties, expectations, and demands

    • Implications for parents and educators for creating environments that recognize each child’s temperament while encouraging adaptive functioning


A “difficult” temperament promotes survival during famine conditions in Africa (De Vries, 1984)

  • A “difficult” temperament promotes survival during famine conditions in Africa (De Vries, 1984)

      • Why?
  • Low activity level is a risk for mental retardation among children raised in a poor institution (Schaffer, 1966)

      • Why?


The expression of primary emotions (anger, fear, joy, interest)

  • The expression of primary emotions (anger, fear, joy, interest)

        • Goldsmith & Campos
  • Activity level, emotionality, and sociability

    • Buss & Plomin


Reactivity - the arousability of motor activity, affective, autonomic, CNS & endocrine responses.

  • Reactivity - the arousability of motor activity, affective, autonomic, CNS & endocrine responses.

  • Self-regulation - Can modulate (facilitate or inhibit) reactivity and those processes include attention, approach, withdrawal, attack, behavioral inhibition, and self-soothing.”

          • Rothbart, 1989


Reactivity–speed, strength & valence of response to stimulation,

  • Reactivity–speed, strength & valence of response to stimulation,

  • Self Regulation – behaviors thatcontrol behavioral and emotional reactions to stimulation ( + or -)

    • develops: reactive control, then active self regulation at end of 2nd year
      • maps to development of brain areas involved in executive attention control
  • Corresponds to current brain-behavior models:

    • behavioral approach/activation system and behavioral inhibition/anxiety system
  • Henderson, H. A., & Wachs, T. D. (2007). Temperament theory and the study of cognition-emotion interactions across development. Developmental Review, 27(3), 396-427. doi: 10.1016/j.dr.2007.06.004



Hippocrates-Galen

  • Hippocrates-Galen

    • Personality types = balance of bodily humors
  • Pavlov & Students

    • Relation of CNS to individual differences
    • Interplay between cortex and subcortex
    • Influence of contextual factors


BAS and BIS: motivational tendencies

  • BAS and BIS: motivational tendencies

  • Behavior Approach System (BAS)

    • - governs approach/appetitive motivations
    • - responds to signals of reward/end of punishment
    • - behavior towards goals, positive feelings
  • Behavior Inhibition System (BIS)

    • - inhibition, interruption of behavior , increase in arousal/vigilance
    • - responds to signals of punishment, nonreward, novelty
    • - underlies states of fear and anxiety
  • - Temperament differences: relative balance of positive affect/approach versus negative affect/inhibition behaviors



Amygdala

  • Amygdala

  • - connections with brainstem nuclei—universal fear reactions

  • - sensitive to ambiguity and uncertainty

  • - temperament related to differences in amygdala activity

  • Nucleus accumbens

  • - anticipatory reward-related responding

  • - activity related to size of anticipated reward

  • EEG asymmetry

  • - resting EEG asymmetry during stressful task related to differences in dealing with novel/stressful events



“[A]dults who had been categorized in the second year of life as inhibited, compared with those previously categorized as uninhibited, showed greater functional MRI signal response within the amygdala to novel versus familiar faces.”

  • “[A]dults who had been categorized in the second year of life as inhibited, compared with those previously categorized as uninhibited, showed greater functional MRI signal response within the amygdala to novel versus familiar faces.”

    • 22 adults (M = 21.8 years)
    • at two years were inhibited (n=13) or uninhibited (n = 9)
          • 20 JUNE 2003 VOL 300 SCIENCE Carl E. Schwartz,1,2,3* Christopher I. Wright,2,3,4 Lisa M. Shin,2,5 Jerome Kagan,6 Scott L. Rauch2,3






Attentional and effortful processes that modulate reactivity

  • Attentional and effortful processes that modulate reactivity

    • regulate behaviors and emotions through voluntary inhibition, response modulation, and self-monitoring (Ahadi et al, 1993)
    • form basis for well-regulated behavior and emotion
    • executive system monitors and regulates reactivity
  • Anterior cyngulate cortex (ACC) and Effortful control

    • ACC facilitates voluntary control of thoughts and emotions
    • ACC as neural alarm




Evaluate strengths/weaknesses of each:

  • Evaluate strengths/weaknesses of each:

    • Parental Report
      • Strength:
      • Weakness:
    • Laboratory Assessments
      • Strength:
      • Weakness:
    • Physiological Assessments
      • Strength:
      • Weakness:


Parent report

  • Parent report

    • Parent knows child best but is biased
  • Lab measures

    • Objective but limited behavior sample
  • Do not correlate highly

    • Under what conditions do the correlate???


“maternal and observer ratings of infant negativity converged when infants manifested high degrees of negative affect during routine home-based activities.

  • “maternal and observer ratings of infant negativity converged when infants manifested high degrees of negative affect during routine home-based activities.

  • …ratings of infant positivity converged when infants experienced low mutually positive affect during play….

  • Sensitive to non-optimal behavior

        • Hane et al., 2006


Cognitive Neuroscience Techniques

  • Cognitive Neuroscience Techniques

  • BUT, drawbacks of fMRI

    • Restrictive procedure
    • Poor temporal resolution


Activity Level, Distress to Limitations, Approach, Fear, Duration of Orienting,

  • Activity Level, Distress to Limitations, Approach, Fear, Duration of Orienting,

  • Smiling and Laughter: Vocal Reactivity:  Sadness:  Perceptual Sensitivity, High Intensity Pleasure: 

  • Low Intensity Pleasure, Cuddliness, Soothability, Falling Reactivity/Rate of Recovery from Distress: 

  • Behavior video







Contrasts with parental responses to questions about negative emotion - heritability estimates tend to be higher and environmental influences less pronounced.

  • Contrasts with parental responses to questions about negative emotion - heritability estimates tend to be higher and environmental influences less pronounced.

  • Shared environmental effects – effects shared by monzygotic and dizygotic twins – point to possible socialization effects in factors affecting smiling and other positive emotional expressions.

    • {Goldsmith, 1997 #1501}. {Goldsmith, 1999 #606}.




Temperament a building block for personality development as temperamental characteristics stabilize over time.

  • Temperament a building block for personality development as temperamental characteristics stabilize over time.

    • Neonatal distress proneness, activity level, and attention show weak links with later assessments
    • After one year, short-term stability of fear, positive emotionality, attention span, persistence, and activity level increase
    • After 2nd year, evidence for longer association between temperament and later behavior.


  • Developmentally appropriate indicators must be considered when assessing temperamental consistency over time.

    • The same behavioral reaction to different stimuli may have different meanings
    • Different behavioral reactions at different ages may have similar meanings


4-month old infants selected based on reactions to unfamiliar sensory stimuli

  • 4-month old infants selected based on reactions to unfamiliar sensory stimuli

    • 3 groups of infants
      • High Negative
      • High Positive
      • Low Reactive
  • Longitudinal assessment

    • Contextually sensitive behavioral measures
    • EEG Measure of frontal cerebral activation (brain)
  • Moderate stability

          • Fox, Henderson, et al. (2001)


High negative 4-month-olds -- low threshold to become distressed and motorically aroused to unfamiliar stimuli

  • High negative 4-month-olds -- low threshold to become distressed and motorically aroused to unfamiliar stimuli

    • more likely to become fearful and subdued during early childhood,
    • more likely to be behaviorally inhibited and reticent through age 4
  • Low reactive infants show a high arousal threshold are more likely to become bold and sociable

  • High positive are least inhibited over time

        • Kagan classic: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CGjO1KwltOw






Among 4-month-olds infants selected for the clarity of their behavioral responsivity,

  • Among 4-month-olds infants selected for the clarity of their behavioral responsivity,

    • high motor activity and negative affect predicted right frontal cerebral activation at 9 months [Calkins, 1996]
    • frontal EEG asymmetry predicted a pattern of continuous behavioral inhibition at 9, 14, and 24 months [Fox, 2001].




High exuberance related to left frontal EEG asymmetry

  • High exuberance related to left frontal EEG asymmetry

  • High exuberance related to social competence as moderated by frontal EEG asymmetry.

  • Children with high, stable Exuberance profile displayed less social reticence (low level of shyness)

  • High exuberance (supported by physiological motivation) also displayed greater surgency and greater externalizing behavior problems at age 5.

    • Kathryn Amey Degnan, Heather A. Henderson, Nathan A. Fox, Kenneth H. Rubin. Predicting Social Wariness in Middle Childhood: The Moderating Roles of Child Care History, Maternal Personality and Maternal Behavior










At 14–17 years, more high than low reactives

  • At 14–17 years, more high than low reactives

    • subdued in unfamiliar situations
    • dour mood & anxiety over the future,
    • more religious,
    • sympathetic tone in the cardiovascular system,
    • fast latency and large magnitude evoked potential from inferior colliculus,
    • shallower habituation of ERP to discrepant visual events.
  • Low correlations among bio measures.

    • Less association of behavior & biology at 15 than earlier


DRD4 - Long Allele

  • DRD4 - Long Allele

    • Novelty/Sensation Seeking
    • Attention Problems/Aggression
    • Susceptibility to Parenting
  • EEG Asymmetry

    • Left Frontal – “Easy” Temperament
    • Right Frontal – “Negative Reactive” Temperament
    • Schmidt, Fox, Perez-Edgar & Hamer (2009)


9 mo

  • 9 mo

    • EEG, Genes
  • 48 mo

    • Temperament
  • CCTI – Maternal Report

    • Soothability
    • Attention Difficulties


DRD4 by Asymmetry

  • DRD4 by Asymmetry

    • Susceptibility to Asymmetry
      • Soothability
      • Attention Difficulties
        • Asymmetry unrelated to DRD4
        • Complex Gene-Gene Interaction?


18-21 month olds

  • 18-21 month olds

  • DRD4 48 (7-repeat allele) “long”

  • Allele increased sensitivity to environmental factors such as parenting.

  • Lower quality parenting higher sensation seeking.

  • Higher quality  lower sensation seeking

          • Parenting quality interacts with genetic variation in dopamine receptor D4 to influence temperament in early childhood  Sheese BE, et al. Dev Psychopathol 2007 19(4):1039-46


Variable-centered approach

  • Variable-centered approach

    • How do folks differ on a variable
      • Stability over time
  • Person-centered approach

    • Relations among constructs within individual
      • Stability over time
  • Caspi



Observed 1,037 3-year-olds for 90 mins

  • Observed 1,037 3-year-olds for 90 mins

    • A cluster analysis of lack-of-control, approach, sluggish
  • yielded 5 temperament types:

    • Undercontrolled (impulsive, negative, low ER; 10%)
    • Inhibited (shy, fearful, easily upset; 8%)
    • Confident (zealous, eager to explore, impulsive; 28%)
    • Reserved (timid, some shyness; 15%)
    • Well-adjusted (self-control, confident, easy; 40%)


Lack of control 

  • Lack of control 

    • hi internalizing (.16/.18),
    • externalizing (.23)
    • low competence (.14/.21)
  • Approach 

    • low internalizing for boys (.15)
  • Sluggishness 

    • low competence (.17/.12)










Connections between 3-year-old temperament is stronger at 26 years (n=980) than 18 years

  • Connections between 3-year-old temperament is stronger at 26 years (n=980) than 18 years

  • Idea of niche-picking - as children become young adults they can create their own environments in ways that are correlated with their dispositional tendencies

  • However, the effect sizes for these predictions are small to moderate!

        • Caspi et al. (2003)




Reactivity and regulation model

  • Reactivity and regulation model

    • Neurophysiologic and behavioral support
  • Moderate longitudinal stability

    • Neurophysiologic and genetic markers add stability
    • As does parental care and environmental influences
  • A general model of emotional development



My heart leaps up when I behold

  • My heart leaps up when I behold

  • A rainbow in the sky:

  • So was it when my life began;

  • So is it now I am a man:

  • So be it when I shall grow old,

  • Or let me die!

  • The Child is father of the Man;

  • And I could wish my days to be

  • Bound each to each by natural piety.

        • William Wordsworth, "My Heart Leaps Up When I Behold"


Defining temperament

  • Defining temperament

  • Dimensions of temperament

  • Consistency of temperamental qualities and prediction to later behavior

  • Temperament and development

  • Conclusion







Temperament is derived from an interaction between genetic predispositions (emotionality,activity level) and experience

  • Temperament is derived from an interaction between genetic predispositions (emotionality,activity level) and experience

  • Genetic individual differences reflected in some physiological systems

    • reactivity in sympathetic and central nervous system


History of Neural Bases of Temperament

  • History of Neural Bases of Temperament

  • Hyppocrates-Galen: “sanguine” personality as balance of the 4 bodily humors

  • Pavlov: excitatory v. inhibitory processes effect reflexes, predict personality

  • Krasnogorsky: CNS properties that underlie temperament influenced by contextual factors (learning experiences, nutrition, etc)



Nature

  • Nature

    • Temperament
    • Genetics
    • Sex differences
  • Nurture

    • Attachment
    • Parenting Styles
    • Culture


Parents’ descriptions of 141 infants and children based on structured interviews

  • Parents’ descriptions of 141 infants and children based on structured interviews

  • Descriptions used to derive 9 dimensions of responding

  • Dimensions cluster together to describe 3 basic temperamental types



Observation

  • Observation

    • LabTAB, Garcia-Coll
  • Questionnaires

    • IBQ, TBAQ
  • Both methods can be used to study heritability and genetic effects



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