E-LOGOS
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Electronic Journal for Philosophy 2015, Vol. 22(2) 4
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ISSN 1211-0442 (DOI 10.18267/j.e-logos.418),Peer-reviewed article
Journal homepage: e-logos.vse.cz
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ELECTRONIC JOURNAL FOR PHILOSOPHY
Volume 22 | Number 02 | 2015
Aristippus and Xenophon as Plato’s contemporary
literary rivals and the role of gymnastikè
(γυμναστική)
Konstantinos Gkaleas
1
Abstrakt:
Plato was a Socrates’ friend and disciple, but he wasn’t the only one. No doubt,
Socrates had many followers, however, the majority of their work is lost. Was there any
antagonism among his followers? Who succeeded in interpreting Socrates? Who could be
considered as his successor? Of course, we
don’t know if these questions emerged after the
death of Socrates, but the Greek doxography suggests that there was a literary rivalry. As we
underlined earlier, most unfortunately, we can’t examine all of them thoroughly due to the lack
of their work, but
we can scrutinize Xenophon’s and Aristippus’ work. All of them, Plato,
Xenophon and Aristippus, presented to a certain extent their ideas concerning education.
Furthermore, they have not neglected the matter of gymnastikè, but what is exactly the role of
physical education in their work? Are there any similarities or any differences between them?
Since, Xenophon and Aristippus (as well as Plato) seem to be in favor of gymnastikè, it is
necessary to understand its role.
Keywords:
gymnastikè
, Plato, Socrates, Xenophon, Aristippus.
1
Université Paris 1 Panthéon
-Sorbonne,
12 place du Panthéon, 75231 Paris Cedex 05, France,
Konstantinos.Gkaleas@malix.univ-paris1.fr
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Plato is a prominent thinker, whose influence on philosophy is an incontestable fact. The
Renaissance philosopher and neo-Platonist himself, Marsilio Ficino didn’t hesitate to describe
the genius Athenian as “the father of philosophers”
2
. That being said, it wouldn’t be rational if
one wasn’t expecting any literary rivals. Nonetheless, we would like to focus only on his
contemporary rivals, since some of these cases are seemingly interesting due to the relation of
the rivals. Plato was a Socrates’ friend and disciple, but he wasn’t the only one. No doubt,
Socrates had many
3
, however, the majority of their work is lost. Was there any antagonism
among his followers? Who succeeded in interpreting Socrates? Who could be considered as his
successor? Of course, we don’t know if these questions emerged after the death of Socrates, but
the Greek doxography suggests that there was a literary rivalry. As we underlined earlier, most
unfortunately, we can’t examine all of them thoroughly due to the lack of their work, but we
can scrutinize Xenophon’s and Aristippus’ work. All of them, Plato, Xenophon and Aristippus,
presented to a certain extent their ideas concerning education. Furthermore, they have not
neglected the matter of physical education – gymnastikè. Are there any essential similarities or
any crucial differences regarding gymnastikè? That is the question we will try to answer.
Aristippus, pleasure (
ἡδονή
) and
gymnastikè
Aristippus is the founder of the Cyrenaic school and hedonistic philosophy
4
. We know that he
was in a certain way a Socratic pupil
5
, nevertheless, it is quite clear that the other followers did
not appreciate neither his behavior nor his ideas. In fact, Diogenes Laërtius informs us that
Xenophon was hostile towards Aristippus, while Plato looked down on him
6
. It is quite
interesting to mention that there is only one reference regarding Aristippus in the platonic
corpus and it is certain that Plato does not seem to praise him, since he is implicating that during
the last moments of Socrates in prison, Aristippus is missing
7
, perhaps with no excuse. In any
case, it would be really interesting to juxtapose the philosophical ideas of these two, but
Aristippus’ work (apart from some fragments) is lost. However, the doxographical tradition
may help us to shed some light on Aristippus’ ideas concerning gymnastikè.
First of all, we do know that Aristippus had written a dialogue, which was undoubtedly
related to gymnastikè, since the title was “To him who trains himself for the Olympic Games”
8
.
Although we can claim it is clear that this work is somewhat associated to gymnastikè, we
ignore completely its content. Was Aristippus trying to praise the athletic gymnastikè? Was he
criticizing gymnastikè? Diogenes Laërtius informs us that Aristippus said once that:
2
“Pater philosophorum” is the used term in Latin. M. Ficino, Platonic Theology, Vol. 4, XII, 1.
3
Plato, Phaedon, 59 b-
c; Diogenes Laërtius, Socrates, 47.
4
N. Politis,
Φιλοσοφήματα, p. 255; Diogenes Laërtius, Aristippus, 65, 85
-86.
5
Xenophon, Memorabilia, B, I, 1; Diogen
es Laërtius, Aristippus, 65.
6
Ibid. 65, 67, 69.
7
Plato, Phaedon, 59 c.
8
Diogenes Laërtius, Aristippus, 84.
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“…those who eat most and take the most exercise are not better in health than those who restrict
themselves to what they require…
9
”.
We would like to suggest that “those who eat most and take the most exercise” are probably the
athletes (or perhaps, in this case Aristippus refers to those that exaggerate with gymnastikè, the
ἄθλιοι). It is indeed a typical description of the athletes, since one can find it pretty often in the
Greek literary tradition
10
. If that’s the case, then we may claim that Aristippus criticizes
indirectly those who exaggerate with gymnastikè (or perhaps, the athletes themselves
11
). But
before we come to a conclusion about the matter at hand, we are obliged to analyze further
Aristippus’ positions regarding gymnastikè.
Are there any indications that Aristippus was against gymnastikè? According to
Diogenes Laërtius, the philosopher defined the « λεία κίνησις » as the « τέλος »
12
. In other
words, our purpose is a sort of movement without any obstacles. What type of movement does
he mean? It is undoubtedly difficult to answer nevertheless, we may be certain this « λεία
κίνησις » doesn’t relate strictly to corporal movement
13
. Diogenes Laërtius informs us that:
“…asserted that corporeal pleasures were superior to mental ones, and corporeal sufferings
14
worse than mental ones. And they argued that it was on this principle that offenders were
punished with bodily pain; for they thought that to suffer pain was hard, but that to be pleased
was more in harmony with the nature of man…”
15
.
If the « λεία κίνησις » is the purpose and pleasure is the desirable, is there any sort of
identification of these two concepts? We could suggest that every corporal suffering is a non-
natural « κίνησις », while pleasure is considered to be the natural kind of « κίνησις », and that’s
why Aristippus is in search of pleasure, for this type of movement is not only more agreeable,
it is the natural movement, probably the natural state of the body and the human spirit, as
believed by Aristippus. What does this mean for gymnastikè? It is quite clear that gymnastikè
9
Ibid. 71.
10
Plutarch, On Socrates’ personal deity, 14 D; Precepts of healthcare, 133 D; Philopoemen, 3;
Philostratus, On gymnastics, 35, 46.
11
We have to indicate that he wouldn’t be the first. Hippocrates (Hippocrates, On regimen, I, 24),
Xenophanes (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, X, 414 B), Euripides, (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae, X, 414
C), Plato, (Plato, Republic, 403 e
–
404 b), Aristotle, (Aristotle, Politics, VIII, 4) are some of the Greek
thinkers expressing their opposition against athletic
gymnastikè
.
12
Diogenes Laërtius, Aristippus, 85.
13
K. Urstad, Pathos, Pleasure and the Ethical Life, E-Logos, Electronic Journal for Philosophy,
University of Prague, 6/2009, p. 4.
14
The Greek word
that’s being used is «
πόνος
», a word strongly
related to
gymnastikè
in Greek
literature and language.
15
Diogenes Laërtius, Aristippus, 91.
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can’t be considered as a pleasure for the body. Is it considered to be a sort of body suffering?
Is it a non-natural movement? Aristippus clarifies that:
“…physical exercises contribute to the acquisition of virtue”
16
.
Is this a contradiction? It is difficult to say, since we ignore Aristippus’ exact doctrines, but we
have to admit that it may seem paradoxical. Under the prism of “hedonism”, one must avoid
any bodily pain, since pleasure is more desirable and more natural, yet, gymnastikè, which is a
kind of bodily pain for itself, is important for the acquisition of virtue. It is impossible to
evaluate this information due to the lack of Aristippus’ work, but we would like to suggest that
it is probably a paradox, whose explication could be pretty simple. Aristippus probably
understands that an unhealthy body is obliged to abstain from pleasures. So, gymnastikè
becomes a necessity, since bodily health is a prerequisite for pleasure. Anyhow, we have seen
that Aristippus speaks in favor of gymnastikè, but he also believes that it is not justifiable to
feel pride for the corporal qualities one may have
17
. So, gymnastikè is important, but it can’t be
an excuse for pride. Is it an indirect reference to the pride of the athletic victory? We can’t be
certain, but we could suggest that this indicates Aristippus refuses to give any primacy to
physical education. Most unfortunately, we haven’t any other elements on Aristippus’ thoughts
regarding gymnastikè.
Our first consumptions concerning Aristippus are that a) gymnastikè is a matter that
interests Aristippus, b) the philosopher isn’t against gymnastikè and physical education, c) there
is a possibility of Aristippus being skeptical or even negative over the subject of athletic
gymnastikè.
Military
gymnastikè
and hunting as
gymnastikè
in Xenophon’s
work
It’s a fact that Socrates’ persona plays a major role in Xenophon’s work. Both Plato and
Xenophon idealized and transformed in a way their common mentor
18
in order to justify and
promote their own ideas. Is there any antagonism between these two Athenian thinkers? That
could explain why Plato never refers to Xenophon, while the latter makes only one reference
of the former in his “Memorabilia”
19
. According to the Greek doxographical tradition, their
relation was never the best
20
and there was always a suspicion concerning their literary rivalry
21
.
It is quite interesting to note that we can trace some kind of literary reaction between these
16
Ibid. 91.
17
Ibid. 73.
18
P. Hadot, Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique, ed. Albin Michel, 2002, p. 102.
19
Xenophon, Memorabilia, III, 6, 1.
20
Diogenes Laërtius
, Xenophon, 57.
21
G. Danzig, La prétendue rivalité entre Platon et Xénophon, ed. Picard, Revue Française d’Histo
ire
des Idées Politiques, 2002/2, No. 16, p. 351.
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two
22
. We have to admit that we can’t be certain if that literary rivalry really existed, but it is
quite possible that there is a reciprocal literary reaction.
No doubt, Xenophon demonstrates his interest in matters of education in his work. We find
sporadically many references concerning education and we can easily come to the conclusion
that Xenophon is greatly influenced by the Dorian ideal
23
and the concept of the military
aristocracy
24
. That explains why Xenophon relates gymnastikè with military preparation
25
,
seeing it as an excellent way to make capable warriors especially in comparison to those that
don’t exercise their body
26
. In fact, it’s the element of gymnastikè the one that gives the
advantage to Spartan warriors against the « ἀπόνους » Persians, in other words, the untrained
Persian troops. Gymnastikè becomes the factor that gives the victory, since the Spartans are
those that exercise their bodies, while the Persians prefer to avoid any corporal “suffering” due
to gymnastikè. That’s why Xenophon says that obesity and feebleness characterize every
Persian soldier
27
. However, it is quite remarkable how easily Xenophon “forgot” these
references, when he was writing “Cyropaedia”, a work praising Cyrus. Xenophon says:
“…when the king goes out to hunt, which he will do several times a month, he takes half the
company with him, and each man must carry bow and arrows, a sheathed dagger, or sagaris,
slung beside the quiver, a light shield, and two javelins, one to hurl and the other to use, if need
be, at close quarters. The reason of this public sanction for the chase is not far to seek; the king
leads just as he does in war, hunting in person at the head of the field, and making his men
follow, because it is felt that the exercise itself is the best possible training for the needs of war.
It accustoms a man to early rising; it hardens him to endure heat and cold; it teaches him to
march and to run at the top of his speed…”
28
.
As one can see, Xenophon contradicts himself, indicating that the Persians do exercise their
bodies. To be more precise, hunt becomes a physical exercise, described as “ the best possible
training for the needs of war”. We won’t be paying any attention to Xenophon’s contradiction,
for we are interested in focusing somewhere else. It is the second time that Xenophon relates
gymnastikè to military preparations. Hunt becomes in a way a kind of physical exercise, a sort
of military gymnastikè. In fact, it’s not the only time that Xenophon tries to present hunt as
form of gymnastikè. In his work “On hunting”, it is pretty clear he seems to identify these two
22
Ibid. p. 351-368.
23
Regarding the Dorian ideal, Éd.
Des Places, Pindare et Platon, ed. Beauchesne et ses fils, Paris,
1949, p. 41-49.
24
L. Canfora, Le citoyen, in the collective work “L’homme grec” und
er the direction of J.-P. Vernant,
Éditions du Seuil, 1993, p. 172
-173.
25
Xenophon, Agesilaus, I, 25; Cyropaedia, I, 10.
26
Xenophon, Agesilaus, I, 28.
27
Ibid. I, 28.
28
Xenophon, Cyropaedia, I, 2, 9-10.
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(hunting as gymnastikè)
29
. Is he the first Greek thinker that considers hunt as a form of physical
exercise? Perhaps, but we can’t be sure about it.
Anyhow, there’s a plethora of references regarding gymnastikè that allow us to evoke
that a) Xenophon is interested in physical education, b) he speaks in favor of military
gymnastikè and c) he presents hunting as a form of physical exercise.
The “other” Socrates and gymmastikè
Socrates is the protagonist in many works of Xenophon. “Memorabilia”, “Symposium”,
“Apology” are some of them. It is remarkable that Xenophon use Socrates’ persona in his works
that relate mostly to ethics and socio-political life of the « πόλις ». As we’ve already mentioned,
Xenophon idealizes and transforms to a certain extent in his own Socratic dialogues
30
.
According to Waterfield, Xenophon’s purpose is to present Socrates as the incarnation of the
Greek moral values, but a Socrates who’s more “accessible” in comparison to Plato’s Socrates
31
.
What’s Socrates’ opinion on the subject of gymnastikè? Xenophon spoke in favor of military
gymnastikè. Under the Socratic mask, does he “change” his opinion?
It is more than clear that Xenophon’s Socrates appreciates gymnastikè. We read in
“Memorabilia” that Socrates took care of his body, while he didn’t approve those that didn’t
32
.
Also, Socrates, says Xenophon, used to exercise his body and his soul in order to feel confident
and secure
33
. It seems that the body plays an important role, as its care contributes to quality of
life, while Xenophon seems to describe gymnastikè as a way to cope with corporal sufferings
34
.
It is more than certain that physical exercises and gymnastikè are in a way obligatory for those
that desire a life of happiness.
In Xenophon’s “Symposium”, we find another element concerning gymnastikè,
probably the most interesting till now. During a symposium and in a cheerful ambiance, a
discussion takes place and Socrates enters the conversation, referring to the qualities of dance.
Socrates is trying to explicate why he thinks dance is an incredible form of gymnastikè. He
says:
“…no part of his body (a dancer’s body) was idle during the dance, but neck, legs, and hands
were all active together. And that is the way a person must dance who intends to increase the
suppleness of his body…I am eager for such exercises as these, not like the long-distance
runners, who develop their legs at the expense of their shoulders, nor like the prize-fighters,
29
Xenophon, On hunting, II, 1.
30
P. Hadot,
Exercices spirituels…, p. 102; P. Waterfield, Xenophon’s Socratic mission, in the collective
work «
Xenophon and his world, Papers from a conference held in Liverpool in July 1999
», under the
direction of Ch. Tuplin, 2004, p. 95.
31
R. Waterfield, Xenopho
n’s Socratic mission
, In: Xenophon and His World: Papers from a Conference
Held in Liverpool in July 1999, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004, p. 95-96.
32
Xenophon, Memorabilia, A, II, 4.
33
Ibid. A, III, 5.
34
Ibid. A, VI, 7-8.
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who develop their shoulders but become thin-legged, but rather with a view to giving my body
a symmetrical development by exercising it in every part”
35
?
Dance is not only characterized as a form of gymnastikè, but it has the ability to cultivate
symmetrically the human body, while other physical activities don’t promote this kind of
corporal harmony.
We have indicated quite clearly, that Xenophon’s Socrates speaks generally in favor of
gymnastikè, suggesting that dance is a fine form of physical exercise, but what about military
gymnastikè? It seems that Socrates privileges this specific type of gymnastikè, as we may
clearly see in “Oeconomicus”:
“By Hera (I replied), Ischomachus, I cannot say how much your doings take my fancy. How
you have contrived, to pack up portably for use — together at the same time — appliances for
health and recipes for strength, exercises for war, and pains to promote your wealth”
36
!
So, we can suggest that Xenophon doesn’t change his mind under the mask of Socrates.
Otherwise, we must admit it would be an enormous contradiction, considering the fact that
Xenophon is strongly related to the Dorian ideal and the military aristocracy.
To sum up, we may say that a) Xenophon’s Socrates is in favor of gymnastikè, b) he
considers dance as a form of gymnastikè that is in fact superior to other physical exercises,
since it cultivates symmetrically the whole body, and c) he privileges military gymnastikè.
Conclusions
After having examined Aristippus’ and Xenophon’s positions regarding gymnastikè, we have
drawn some important conclusions. Xenophon and Aristippus (as well as Plato) seem to be in
favor of gymnastikè. It is quite evident that we can’t speak with certainty in Aristippus’ case;
nevertheless, we may say that the Cyrenaic philosopher demonstrates his interest concerning
physical education matters. As we have already underlined a) gymnastikè is a matter that
interests Aristippus, b) the philosopher isn’t against gymnastikè and physical education, c) there
is a possibility of Aristippus being skeptical or even negative over the subject of athletic
gymnastikè. On the other hand, we may evoke that a) Xenophon is interested in physical
education, b) he speaks in favor of military gymnastikè and c) he presents hunting as a form of
physical exercise. It is quite interesting to notice that Xenophon’s Socrates a) is also in favor of
gymnastikè, b) considering dance as a form of gymnastikè that is in fact superior to other
physical exercises, since it cultivates symmetrically the whole body, and of course c) he
privileges military gymnastikè.
35
Ibid. II, 16-17.
36
Xenophon, Oeconomicus, XI, 19.
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References
Canfora, L., Le citoyen, In: Vernant, J.-P. “L’homme grec”, Éditions du Seuil, 1993
Danzig, G., La prétendue rivalité entre Platon et Xénophon, In : ed. Picard, Revue Française d’Histoire des Idées
Politiques, 2002/2, No. 16.
Des Places, Éd., Pindare et Platon, Éditions Beauchesne et ses fils, Paris, 1949.
Hadot, P., Exercices spirituels et philosophie antique, ed. Albin Michel, 2002
Urstad, K., Pathos, Pleasure and the Ethical Life, In: E-Logos, Electronic Journal for Philosophy, University of
Prague, 6/2009.
Waterfield, R., Xenophon’s Socratic mission. In: Xenophon and His World: Papers from a Conference Held in
Liverpool in July 1999, Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004.
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