Emotions are useful because they help people adapt to their environments Fear leads to avoiding danger Happiness strengthens relationships Disgust keeps people away from things that make them ill
Basic emotions: universal and consist of subjective feeling, physiological change, and overt behavior Basic emotions: universal and consist of subjective feeling, physiological change, and overt behavior Interest, disgust, sadness, & fear Stranger wariness appears around 6 months Self-conscious (complex) emotions such as pride, guilt, embarrassment appear later Cultures differ in degree of emotional expression
By 4-6 months, infants can identify facial expressions associated with different emotions By 4-6 months, infants can identify facial expressions associated with different emotions Social referencing: in unfamiliar or ambiguous environment, infants look to parents for cues to interpret situation During elementary school, children understand that people can have mixed feelings
Regulation of emotions begins in infancy Regulation of emotions begins in infancy For example, infants will look away when they encounter something frightening or confusing With age, children develop even more effective strategies Children who don’t regulate their emotions tend to have problems with peers
Temperament: behavioral styles that are fairly stable across situations and are biologically based Temperament: behavioral styles that are fairly stable across situations and are biologically based Thomas and Chess identified 3 patterns: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up Five dimensions: activity level, positive affect, persistence, inhibition, and negative affect
Twin studies show genetic influence: identical twins more alike in most aspects of temperament than fraternal twins Twin studies show genetic influence: identical twins more alike in most aspects of temperament than fraternal twins Influence of heredity depends on dimension and child’s age Infants more likely to develop intense, difficult temperaments when mothers are abrupt and lack confidence
Temperament moderately stable through infancy, childhood, and adolescence Temperament moderately stable through infancy, childhood, and adolescence Fearful preschoolers tend to be inhibited as older child and adolescent Research also reveals many instances where temperament is not related to adult personality
Various aspects of temperament are related to school success, peer interactions, compliance with parents, accidents, and helping others Various aspects of temperament are related to school success, peer interactions, compliance with parents, accidents, and helping others Influence of temperament depends on environmental influences (children who resist control are less likely to have behavior problems when mothers exert control)
Temperament and Helping Behavior
Attachment: enduring social-emotional relationship Attachment: enduring social-emotional relationship Relies upon infant’s growing perceptual and cognitive skills Usually first attach to mothers, then to fathers Prefer to play with fathers, but prefer mothers for comfort
Types: secure, avoidant, resistant, disorganized Types: secure, avoidant, resistant, disorganized Positive consequences of secure attachment in later social relationships Predictable, responsive parenting is important for secure attachment Parents’ attachment to their parents may influence responsiveness to their children Characteristics of child care and mother affect quality of attachment
Cross-cultural Data on Attachment
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