DE GRUYTER MOUTON
DOI 10.1515/multi-2013-0003
Multilingua 2013; 32(1): 51–78
Mie Hiramoto
Hey, you’re a girl?: Gendered expressions
in the popular anime, Cowboy Bebop
Abstract: The popular anime series,
Cowboy Bebop, was originally created and
released in Japan in 1998 and later gained an intense overseas following. The
show owes its phenomenal international acclaim to successful conventions of
hegemonic masculinity represented by the imaginary characters. The social
semiotics of desire depicted in Cowboy Bebop cater to a general heterosexual
market in which hero and babe characters are represented by archetypes of
heterosexual normativity. In this study, the idea of inter-indexicality, or ‘the
movement between two distinctive indexical systems as a semiotic mode of
subject formation’ (Inoue 2003: 317), will be employed in the discussion of data
derived from the Japanese and American English dubbing of Cowboy Bebop.
The analysis will focus on how ideas including heterosexual normativity are
reproduced in order to negotiate the intertextual distances that link the charac-
ters and audience. Inter-indexical notions help to construct interpretive voices
familiar to the cross-cultural audience’s social world.
Keywords: gender, sexuality, indexicality, language ideology, anime, translation
Mie Hiramoto: Blk AS5, 7 Arts Link, Singapore 117570, HP: http://profile.nus.edu.sg/fass/
ellmh/, e-mail: ellmh@nus.edu.sg
1 Introduction: Ideology of gendered speech
This research discusses prototypical gendered expressions in Japanese popular
anime and how their translations into American English convey ideological
masculine and feminine speech styles from Japanese to English. A number of
recent studies in sociolinguistics and anthropological linguistics recognize
scripted speech as a site of stereotyping (e.g., Ronkin & Karn 1999; Inoue 2003;
Meek 2006; Queen 2004). When scripted, characters’ speech styles are often
framed by their given ideological roles. That is, through their speech styles,
characters in scripted speech are commonly made identifiable with subgroups
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DE GRUYTER MOUTON
52
Mie Hiramoto
to which they belong according to certain expectations based on linguistic
ideology (e.g., age, gender, socioeconomic status, regional affiliation, etc.).
Thus, the characters often carry out stereotypical linguistic variations in order
to represent their given roles and traits. Through his studies of Japanese fiction,
Kinsui (2003, 2007) suggests the idea of yakuwarigo ‘role language,’ or linguistic
features that imbue their speakers with specific traits. He points out that assign-
ment of a linguistic register helps audiences identify stereotypical images
related to their given roles. Certainly, yakuwarigo is rampant in popular anime
shows, as most of the characters are depicted in purposefully exaggerated man-
ners. Roles such as protagonist, villain, sidekick, etc. are made transparent to
the audience both visually and linguistically in mainstream anime. This study
investigates the use of gendered expressions in translation in the popular anime
Cowboy Bebop (
CB), whose target audience is young adult males.
Inoue (2003: 327), discussing black slave characters in the Japanese transla-
tion of Gone with the wind, notes that both male and female characters in the
translation use non-standard, or potentially ungrammatical, speech styles
(Inoue 2003). Indeed, in the Japanese translation of Gone with the wind, only
the Southern-aristocratic white characters use standard Japanese (Hiramoto
2009). Similarly, Gaubatz’s (2007) survey of the Japanese translation of The
adventures of Huckleberry Finn, native Japanese-speaking survey respondents
believed Huckleberry Finn’s speech to be in Tokyo dialect while Jim’s speech
was perceived to be in a non-standard dialect. This suggests that, in American
English-to-Japanese translations, Japanese normativity (use of standard/Tokyo
dialect) is conveniently aligned with protagonists, while minority characters are
marked as linguistically non-normative via use of non-standard Japanese. Ideal
gendered speech is made available to these normative characters at the cost of
marginalization of minority characters in these scripted speech forms. Interest-
ingly, this marginalization is seen despite the fact that, in the original English,
none of the protagonists discussed above are speaking what would be consid-
ered standard American English, but rather heavily accented southern Ameri-
can English.
Kiesling (2006 [2002], 2005), in his analysis of North American fraternities’
construction of gender ideologies via language use, finds that fraternity mem-
bers emphasize heterosexual male dominance and female and homosexual
male subordination. He shows ‘how language is used by the men to reproduce
a hegemonic heterosexuality which is embedded in the larger context of hege-
monic masculinity’ (Kiesling 2006 [2002]: 129). His examples include the mem-
bers’ use of terms of address toward other males and their stories of drinking
and their sexual exploits with women. These data demonstrate constructions
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