Important Oceanography Stuff



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Oceanography
CH1

70.8% earth is ocean.

97% earth water in ocean

observe, hypo, test, theorize

3729m avg. ocean depth

Density Stratification: more dense material migrates to middle of earth

Differentiation: process by which dif layers form, microgomical life.

oceans provide 70% of breathable oxygen

½ earth pop. live coastal

80% Americans hour from water

Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, Southern/Antarctica

Mauna Kea: tallest mountain from base to top

Polynesia, Micronesia, Melanesia

nebula: cloud gas/dust

nebular hypothesis: big ass sun, left behind pieces, thus, we are fecal matter of a super novial basis.

fusion reaction: tens of millions of degrees

solar wind: ionized particles of the sun

radioactivity: spontaneous disintegration of atoms


Crust: granite, basalt.

Oceanic crust: basalt thinner, more dense 5m

continental crust: granite. thicker, less dense 22m

Mantle: lithosphere, aesthenosphere, mesosphere. 1800m

lithosphere: crust, top portion mantle. 62m thick

asthenosphere: plastic, flow if force applied. 62m-430m.

mesosphere: 430m-1800m. rigid, deforms platically.

inner core: rigid

outer core: liquid
Isostatic adjustment: the verticle movement of crust

isostatic rebound: when reduced load causes area to rise


outgassing: when lower density gases from within are expelled from inside. [water vapor condensed and formed first oceans.

oxygen comprises 21% atmosp

Stanley Miller: conducted first experiment of early atmosphere.
Heretotrophs: earliest forms of life. fed on non-living organic food.

autotrophs: made own food. similar to anaerobic bacteria

chemosynthesis: process by which energy from deep water hydrotherm vents

chlorophyll: green pigment captures sun through photosynthesis.

endothermic: engery got through chemical processes

exothermic: energy released through chem. proc.

autho and hetero need each other

From the very beginning, life depended upon life.


half-life: time it takes for ½ the atoms in a sample to decay to other atoms

radiometric age dating: comparison b/w radioactive material and amount of resulting decay.


4.6b yrs ago earth created. 4b yrs ago oceans created.

1 degree of lat=60 nautical miles.

1 degree long is variable

60m long at eq, 0 at poles


CH2

Alfred Wegener 1912: continental drift, pangea

200m yrs ago continents one

low lat similarities b/w glacial deposits

did not have good explanation of plate tectonic theory

1960s after WWII new data.

ecosounding:pings

paleomagnetism: to determine original positions of rocks on earth

magnetic field exists b/c convection in earth’s core

lava-no mag field

“currie” temperature=magnetism

field flips now and again

magnetameters: used to measure field

striped ocean floor indicates flipped magnetic field over ages of sea-floor spreading

Harry Hes: Plate Tectonics; subduction theory, sea-floor spreading

200m yrs oldest lithosphere

pacific ocean shrinking, atlantic growing

earthquakes match plate boundaries

Sir Edward Bullard put continents together at 2000m depth instead of at coastlines.
magnetite: naturally magnetic iron material

magnetic dip: degree to which magnetite particle points into earth. Parallel at Equator.

polar wandering curve: curve that shows change of position of poles through time

magnetic anomalies: ocean floor stripes of magnetite frozen in various rocks, showing change in polarity of magnetic field

convection cell: asthenosphere circular moving loop of matter involved in convective movement

Fredrich Vine and Drummon Mathews: explained earth’s switching polarity with sea floor spreading

oldest ocean floor 180m yrs

crust thinner by MOR, thicker by trenches

all plates contain oceanic and continental crust

rift valley 25-50km wide

oceanic ridges and rises are slow spreading and steeper. and narrower
shallow heat source-> upwelling, then movement apart creates rift valley, then linear sea is formed with increase spreading. millions of yrs later big ocean, continents.

rate of spreading varies along MOR

faster spread, les ruged terrain, b/c undergoes less thermal contraction and subsidence

oceanic rises: gently-sloping, fast spreading parts of MOR

east pacific rise: b/w pacific and Nazca plates; broad, low, gently swelling floor with indistinct rift valley: 16.5 cm/yr spread rate.

oceanic ridges: steep-sloped slow spread

faster spreading=less energy per earthquake

seismic moment magnitude: measure earthquake intensity Mw.

Mw=6.0 slow spreading mid-atlantic

Mw=4.5 fast spreading east pacif-ridge


volcanic arc; volcanoes above subduction zone

continental arc: oceanic-continental collision [basalt+granite=destructive eruption

island arc: oceanic-oceanic collision; older, denser sea floor subducts [basalt+baslt=not destructive]
older continental lithosphere no denser than young

continental-continental no subduction, high mountains result


trench earthquakes occur in succession

subducting plate can be traced below surface by measuring seismic activity by depth

factors of convergent boundary earthquakes:

-lithospheric slabs of rock pressing together

-thick crust of convergent boundaries more energy than thinner crust of div boundaries

-mineral structure changes occur at deeper, higher pressures


transform fault: a fault with side to side motion that offsets segs of MOR

oceanic transform fault: most common, occurring on ocean floor

continental transform fault: cuts across continent

transform faulting: movement of 1 plate past another; shallow, strong quakes in lithosphere

san andreas fault: continental fault from gulf of cali to n cali. Mw=8.5. Cali will NOT fall into ocean
intraplane features: features within plate far from boundaries

mantle plumes: columnar areas of hot molten rock that arise from deep within mantle

hotspots; come to surface

Iceland above a 93m wide mantle plume.

Hawaiian Islands-Emperor Seamount chain; NW-ward-SE-ward. 100 volcanoes. Mantle plume remains, and the plates move

one hotspot created many

Nematath: a chain of extinct volcanoes older as further from hotspot

Hawaiian islands eventually will subduct into Aleutian trench

Loihi: volcano to take place of hawii.
Seamount: tall, volcanic, conical peak [abyssal=<200m]

tablemount: tall, volcanic, flat peak.

-Tablemounts forms by seamounts carried from MOR volcanic centers and sometimes become islands. Wave erosion flattens seamounts. carried into deep water, taking w/ them evidence of shallow water days
Coral Reef:

Calcareous reef 18 degree C

Darwin theorized firstly about reefs

3 stages of formation:

-fringing reefs; develop along margin of a landmass, where temp, salintity and turbidity of water suitable for reef-building corals. Volcano lava kills fringing reef often, so not very developed. If lvl of sea remains constant or land does not sink, then process stops at fringing reef stage.

-barrier reefs: separated from sunken landmass by well-developed lagoon. reef grows 3-5m per 1000 yrs. if landmass sinks faster than coral can grow, depth will not support reef life.

-atoll: atoll encloses lagoon 30-50m deep, channels to open ocean. volcano completely sunk. Can support human colonization.

Great Barrier Reef- 3000+ indiv reefs. 25m offshore. 90m width. 1200m long. northerly part oldest, because it reached appropriate water first.


Paleogeography; study of historical changes of continental shapes and positions.

paleoceanography; study of phys shape, compos, char of oceans brought about by paleogeography changes.

Wilson Cycle: uses plate tectonic processes to show the distinctive life cycle of ocean basins during their formation, growth, and destruction.
[lecture]

-go N, magnet points down, S points up

-500k yrs in interval of magnetism reversal.

-normal polarity, magnetism leaves S, enters N.

-90% earths field is dipolar

-90% earth’s heat from radioactivity in mantle.

-10% latent heat stored in earth’s core.

-ongoing convection creates differentiation

-iron catastrophy; iron to middle of earth

-early atmosp and oceans created by volcanic activity

-transfer heat 3 ways; radiation, conduction, convection

-Wilson Cycle;

embryonic; uplift

juvenile; divergence [narrow sea]

mature; divergence [ocean basin]

declining; convergence [sub island arc]

terminal; convergence [collision]

suturing; convergence and uplift



CH 3

bathymetry; measure of ocean depths

sounding; weight on a line

fathom; 6th; standard unit of ocean depth

relief; variations in elevation

HMS Challenger; 1872; 1st ship to make systematic soundings

echo sounder; ping

Precise Depth Recorder; sonar tech; high freq sound beam to measure depth

sonar; sound navigation and ranging

seabeam; 1st multibeam echo sounder

Sea MARC; side-scan sonar sys; Sea Mapping and Remote Characterization [towed]

GLORIA; side-scan; Geological Long-Range Inclined Acoustical instrument [towed]

5% of ocean floor mapped as precisely as moon surface

satellite bathymetry measures relief in ocean surface; high sub-contours produce bulges

seismic reflection profiles: sounds which penetrate the sea floor and reflect off of boundaries b/w different layers of rock/sed

hypsographic curve:relationship b/w height of land and ocean depth

ocean floor:

-continental margins; shelf, slope, rise

-deep-ocean basins; further from land

-MOR; near middle ocean, shallow

continental margins;

passive margins: little tectonic activity, interior of lithospheric plates. [not close to any plate boundary]

active margins; much activity, close to plate boundary.

convergent; ocean-continent convergent plate, continental arc, narrow shelf, steep slope, offshore trench

transform; transform plate boundaries. faults that parallel transform plate boundary create linear islands, banks, and deep basins close to shore.

continental shelf; underlying rock is continental crust. flat zone from shore to sharp slope.

shelf break; marked slope angle increase at end of shelf.

-70km avg width

-largest shelves shores of N sibera, NA

-135m avg. depth

-antarctica shelf break at 350m

-avg slope a 10th of a degree

-continental slope determined by continental margin

-continental borderland; when offshore faults of an active transform margin creat a CS that is not flat

continental slope; where deep-ocean basins begin

-avg slope 4 degrees, varies 1-25 degrees


Submarine canyons; V-shaped, continental shelf and slope.

-Montery Canyon=grand canyon

-not formed by rivers, by but turbidity currents

turbidity current; underwater avalanche of muddy water w/ rocks


Continental rise; transition zone b/w continental margin and deep-ocean floor, much debris.

graded bedding; grades in size upward. caused by turbidity currents.

turbite deposits; graded beeding, continental rise is composed

deep-sea/submarine fans; deposits at mouth of submarine canyons.

Indus fan burries Carlsberg Ridge

along convergent active margins, no continental rise.


abyssal plain; plains from rise to ocean-basins. Flat, w/ slopes fraction of degree.

-4500m-6000m deep

-few abyssal plains in pacific b/c of trenches

suspension settling; fine particles accumulate on ocean floor. Covers irregularities.

abyssal hill/sea knoll; less than 1000m high

-most abundant features on planet

abyssal hill prvinces; regions of abyssal hills due to low sed deposition; pacific.
ocean trench; deep linear scars caused by plate collision

Pacific Ring of Fire; along margins of pacific, maj of volcanoes and earthquakes.


MOR; 46,600mile long. avg width;620m, avg 1.5m high. 23% of earths surface, entirely volcanic.

rift valley; contain fissures and faults

pillow lavas/pillow basalts; frozen lobes of magma when in quick contact with cold ocean water.

80% earth volcanism on seafloor

3 cubic miles of molten rock erupts on sea floor each year.

hydrothermal vents; feature of central rift valley; hot springs. seawater along fractures in crust seeps down, becoming heated when close to magma, then rises to floor again.

warm water vents; below 86 degrees F, clear-color water

white smokers; 86-662 degree F, white b/c of light-colored compounds

black smokers; above 662 degrees F, black b/c metal sulfides chimneys up to 200ft. No steam, b/c of pressure

metal sulfides; dark-colored; ion, nickel, copper, zinc

precipitate; solution out of which come the dissolved metal particles

-creates mineral deposits on nearby rocks.

-vents support unusual life
transform faults; cut mid-ocean ridge. Exist b/c spreading on spherical earth. Seismically active, occur b/w offset segs of mid-ocean ridge

fracture zone; seismically inactive, occur beyond offset segs of MOR.

[lecture]

-earth radially stratified

-convection efficient way of transferring heat

-core; iron/nickel

-mantle; magnesium iron silica

mesosphere stronger than asthenosphere

-ocean water density; 1.028 g/cm3

-sea lvl S of Indian 100m lower than in pacific

-smooth out earth, add all water; 2440m mean earth depth [water world]

-when subducted lithosph reach 100mile depth, pent up water comes up and create volcano

8 or 9 megathrust earthquakes; when locked plates slip

CH 4

sediment; eroded particles of dirt, dust, other debris scattered at ocean floor

cores; a cylinder of sed material recovered

past climate, geology, biology known by study of cores

more than half rocks on earth surface are sedimentary rocks [lithified sediments]
lithogenous sed; sed derived from weathering of rock and transported to ocean

weather, erosion, transportation, deposition, lithification

erode; picked up

carried to oceans by gravity, wind, streams, glaciers

most lithgen material around continents

minerals; discrete crystals of naturally occurring compounds

quartz; silicon and oxygen SiO2. abundant, chemically stable, durable

large -> small; boulders, cobbles, pebbles, granules, sand, silt, clay

sed size proportional to energy required to lay it down

[clay is exception, because they stick together]

winds carry 11-5m metric tons of sand to ocean per year

sorting; measure of the uniformity of grain sizes

-glaciers leave poorly sorted seds

-better sorting; more alike to surrounding sed

maturity; increases as

-clay cont decrease

-sorting increase

-non-quartz material decrease

-grains of dep more rounded

occurs during transport

beaches mature/glacial deposits immature

Neritic deposits; around continental margins and islands

Pelagic deposits; deep-ocean basin deposits

relict seds; cover the continental shelf

muddy lagoon, sand beach most likely to create litho sed rock

litho sed found in abundance in ocean trenches

grain composition not necessary to describe texture of sed

lithogen found also on abyssal plains, found everywhere

lithogen sed is THICK at cont, shelf, rise, and deep trenches

glacial deps; boulders to clays, poorly sorted. forming around Greenland and ant right now. in high lat areas of continental shelf.

ice rafting;lithogen particles carried out by glacial ice

abyssal clay; compose deep ocean abyssal plains. 70% clay-sized particles from land

dominates not because clay settles most, but b/c other seds don’t
biogen sed; hard part remains of dead organisms

tests; tiny shells constant rain to ocean floor

ooze; 30% test material, 70% clay; sed on ocean floor

algae; organisms; photosynthetic, from single cells to giant kelp. Have membrane bound nucleus

protozoans; single-celled, eukraytic, usually microscopic, not photosynthetic
calcium carbonate; forms calcite

silica; hydrated form called opal


diatoms; microscopic algae->give silica->found at surface with sunlight and planktonic

radiolarians; microscopic->gives silica->rely on outside food sources

[planktonic=free floating]

diatomaceous ooze; lightweight white rock of diatom tests and clay that has lithified. At ocean floor where, above, diatoms are abundant

siliceous ooze; accumulation of siliceous tests of diatoms, radiolarians, and other silica-producing organisms. [cool, cool surface high lat, upwelling brings cold water, beneath areas of upwelling and along equator]
foramnifers; relatives of radiolarians. protozoans, planktonic, micro to macro, no photo, hard tests produced

only foramnifers and coccolithophores are planktonic


coccolithophores; single-cells algae, planktonic, photosyn. produce spherical layer of calcium carbonate

nannoplankton; 10-100x smaller than diatoms [calcium carbonte]

coccolith; individual plates of coccolithophores

chalk; when coccolith-rich ooze lithifies. England chalk cliffs lifted above sea

cretaceous period!

calcareous ooze; deps rich of foramnifer, coccolith tests [calcium carbonate] [warm, warm surface, low lat, dissolves after CCD, war surface water, low lat along mid-ocean ridge]


diatomaceous ooze resistant to heat [space shuttle]

biogen sed found in pelagic deps, rarely in neritic deps, but does exist

distribution of biogen sed depend on;

productivity

destruction

dilution


dilution; when deposition of other sed decrease percentage of biogen seds.

calcite compensation depth [CCD]; point at which sed does not usually contain much calcite b/c it readily dissolves. usually 15k ft below sea lv, but varies. Siliceous unaffected

calcareous ooze can survive lower than CCD if formed on MOR, and covered by other seds, then taken out by sea-floor spreading

modern carbonate oozes rare below 16.4k ft

calcium carbonate rare in deep ocean or cold water

upwelling; when deep ocean water comes up and supplies nutrients


Neritic deps->continental, islandal

carbonate

limestones

most limestone contains fossile marine shells, suggesting biogen origin

ancient marine deps 2% earth’s crust, 25% of a sed rocks on earth

limestone forms bedrock and groundwater-percolated caverns

stromatolites;fine layers of carbonate, from in warm shallow water

cyanobacteria produce these deps; trapped particles in mucous mats

can be big
pelagic deps; oceanic

siliceous ooze 3 kinds; cool waters [cool, cool surface high lat, upwelling brings cold water, beneath areas of upwelling and along equator]

diatomaceous; diatoms, cold water of poles

radiolarian ooze; radiolarians-> equatorial regions

silicoflagellate ooze; silicoflagellates

calcareous ooze; warm waters [warm, warm surface, low lat, dissolves after CCD, war surface water, low lat along mid-ocean ridge]

coccolith ooze; colithopres

foramnifer ooze; foraminifer

moist of ocean covered by calcareous ooze, then abyssal clay, then siliceous

lysocline; depth where pressure and CO2 great enough to begin dissolving calcium carbonate.


Evaporate minerals; form where open ocean circulation restricted and evap rates high.

tektite; small molten pieces of crust ejected into pace by terrestrial impact

oolite; small calcite spheres, shallow tropic water where CaCO3 high in concentration. layers like onion

Metal sulfies; associated with vents and black smokers MOR. found all over, though; iron, nickel, copper, zinc, silver


clay is a part of every sediment type

sed are rarely pure

most litho has biogen sed too

tiny amounts of cosmos ed with all types of sed


misc

KT event killed 2/3 plant/animal life [dinosaurs]

Deccan Traps; large outpouring of volcanic basaltic rock in India

Iridium; rock from meteors mainly

Chicxulub crater; Yuctan Penn, MX

99% of particles that fall to ocean floor do so in fecal pellets


dredge; bucket like device used to scoop up sed

gravity corer; hollow steel tube w/ weighted top; used to collect cores

rotary drilling; collect cores from deep ocean
petroleum; leftover remains of microscopic organisms buried and pressured 95% of econ value of extracted non-living resources

30% of petroleum got from ocean today

gas hydrates; compact strucs of water, nat gas. occur under permafrost land areas and under ocean floor

methane hydrate; produced my methane, most common nat gas

gas hydrates formed by bacteria breaking down organic matter traped in sea floor seds

mostly in continental margins

sudden release of methane cause tsunami

sand and gravel; mined. second to petroleum industry. suction dredge.

concrete, beaches, fill material

gems and minerals too

salt deposits; precipitated salts

gypsum-casts, molds, wallboard, sheetrock

Halite; table salt, curring, preserving, dying, de-icing, agriculture, soap, matches, fireworks

[Roman “salarium” -> salary. Roman soldiers paid in salt. Soldier “not worth his salt”]

Phosphorite; sed rock of phosphate minerals. plant nutrient.

continental shelf, slope, 1k ft

many deps nodules

Manganese nodules; cobalt only “strategic” metal of the nodule. US uses for strong alloy.

crusts; hard coatings on other rocks
Deep Sea Drilling Project; confirmed sea-floor spreading. Today known as Integrated Ocean Drilling Program
CH5

[lecture]

avg spread speed; 5cm/yr -> 20km/million yrs -> 20km3/yr of lava

atlantic spreading slow, pacific fast, but atlantic growing while pac shrinking.


water weakens asthenosphere

much life is mostly water 65-95% of bodies

water regulates global temp by

redistr heat

-storing energy /w out large temp variations

water a solvent

makes soil

salt water

atoms

neutrons [neutral]



protons [+]

electrons [-]

covalent bond; saring electrons, strong

angle b/w hydro atoms 105 degrees

unusual bend in geometry

polarity allows water to form weak hydrogen bonds with fellow molecules

b/c of polarity, water sticks to itself and other things

allows water to be universal solvent

hydrogen bonds strong enough to

high surface tension

high solubility of chem. compounds in water

solid, liquid, gas

unusual thermal properties

counter intuitive density


Temp is not heat.

water cools to 4 degree C

high boiling/high freezing

high latent heat; vaporization/condensation, melting/freezing, evaporation

water has high heat capacity

65% human made of water. 83% blood

quarks; smallest thing
atom holds same number prots, elecs

number of prots is what distinguishes elements known

molecule; group of 2+ atoms

dipolar; two poles of dif charges

cohesionl sticking to one another

mercury only thing with higher surface tension than water

water molecule can reduce attration b/w ions of dif charges by as much as 80%

electrostatic attration; creates ionic bond; b/w dif charges ions

hydrationl process by which water molecules completely surround ions

oil has no charge, which is why it is one of only thing water can’t dissolve

50 quadrillion tons of dissolved salt, the ocean has

van der Waals forces; weak interacting attraction significantly only when molecules are very close togheter [solid, liquid states]. energy must be added to the molecules or ions so that they can move fast enough to overcome these attractions.


heat; the energy of moving molecules

kinetic energy; energy of motion

combustion=burning

calorie; amount of heat required to raise 1g of water 1 degree C

temp; direct measure of the avg kinetic energy of the molecules that make up a substance

great the temp, greater the kinetic energy

water solid state does not conform to shape of container. Rigid, less dense than liquid state.

liquid state; KE, so molecules flow past one another. conform to shape of container.intermolecular bonds form and break at greater rate than in solid state.

vapor; water’s gaseous state. fill volume of container. flow freely, don’t interact except collisions

melting point/freezing point=0 degrees C/ 32 degrees F

boiling point/condensation point=100 degrees C/ 212 degrees F

water condenses when enough heat is removed from a gas


normal compound melting (-90 degree C) boiling (-68 degree C)

water points higher, b/c more heat req to overcome hydro and van der waals forces

heat capacity; amount of heat req to raise of 1g of any substance 1 degree C

the higher heat capacity, the more temp-concerned it’s heat gain or loss is

metals and oil low heat capacity [change temp fast]

water evap from skin, cools it, because it takes heat with it

WATER HEAT CAP=CALORIE
latent heat of melting; energy needed to break intermolecular bonds that hold water molecules rigidly in place in ice crystals [melting ice; this latent heat causes a plateau of temp remaining unchanged until the rigid bonds break]

latent heat of freezing; heat released when freezing


latent heat of vaporization; plateau of 540cal/1g of water; amount of heat must be added to 1g of sub at its boiling pt to break the intermolecular bonds to form gas.

latent heat of condensation; heat released when water vapor cooled and condenses of liq. [heat release can cook, power hurricanes and storms]


sea surface avg temp > or = 20 degree C

evaporation; liquid to gas before boiling pt

molecules left behind lose heat to evaporated molecules

latent heat of evaporation; 585 cal/1g water. more heat req, b/c more hydro bonds to be broken. [at high temps, less bonds, b/c molecules jostling about more]


thermostatic effects; properties that moderate changes in temp. Affect earth’s climate

precipitation, rain, snow, hail. Relase latent heat of condensation

sun eng->ocean->evap->high atoms->condense to clouds->precipitation

HEAT REMOVED FROM LOW LAT AND DEPOS IN HIGH LAT. PRECIP IN HIGH LAT, EVAP IN LOW LAT

ice forming in high lat, moderates

water prevents vast climate differences

land day/night temp differences greater than ocean day/night differences. DUE TO HIGH HEAT CAP OF WATER

marine effect; locations that experience moderating influence of ocean; coastlines, islands

continental effect; areas less affected by ocean have greater temp variations daily and yearly

1g/cm3=water density

DENSITY INCREASES AS TEMP DECREASES

b/c molecules lose eng and slow, so same number of molecules occupy less space

thermal contraction; shrinkage caused by cold temps

-water density- increase to 4 deg C, then it decreases

ice floats- less dense than liquid

4 deg C=39 deg F

ice crystals; form below 4 deg C; bulky, 6-sided, open

water freezes, increases volume by 9%

increase pressure/add dissolved subs=decrease temp of max density for freshwater b/c ice crystal formation is inhibited

-to produce ice crystals in freshwater, more energy must be removed.

SO! DISSOLVED SUB DECREASE FREEZING PT OF WATER
[lecture]

ophiolite;oceanic crust on land

methane hydr req high pressure, cool temp

dead critter release methane that is trapped in water molecules

physical property; intensive [not depend on size of sample] extensive [depends on how much of soething there is] Observed/measured with out changing chem. composition

chem. prop; chem. processes

major dissolved constituents of ocean in same proportion regardless of total salinity

salt water more conductive than sea water

3.5% avg. sea salinity. 35%o.

Baltic= 1% [brackish]

Red=4.2% [hypersaline]

Dead=33%


tap=.8% less

ocean is 96.5% pure

ocean salinity highest at 25 degrees N/S lat

density highest at 20-25 deg lat

Chloride, Sodium, Sulfate, Magnesium, Calcium, Potassium, other

pH pure water=7

pH sea water=8.1[slight alkaline]

1%=parts per hundred

1%o=parts per thousand

goiters=insufficient iodine diet


principal of constant proportions; major salinity components occur everywhere in the ocean in exact same proportion, ind of salin. William Dittmar

Chlorinity; weight of the chloride ion in water sample

19.2% avg chlorinity of ocean
ampulses; contains a measured amount of seawater used as a standard to calibrate equipment. sent all over the world

salinometer; measures salinity [measures seawater electrical conductivity] Accurate

dissolved subs raise boiling point
1872 HMS Challenger=oceanography

brackish; low salinity due to mix of fresh and seawater

hypersaline; high salinity due to high evap and limited open circulation

Oregon low salin

TDS; total siddolved solids

runoff; stream discharge

precipitation, runoff, melting icebergs, melting sea ice [all decrease salin]

sea ice formed slow and old are mostly fresh water.

icebergs= fresh water

evap, sea ice formation [all increase salin]

hydrologic cycle; cycle of water to land, to ocean, from land, from ocean

fluxes;


ocean-atmos

atmos-ocean

atmos-cont

cont-atmos

cont-ocean
salinity/temp control density of water

temp moreso

salinity moreso only in polar areas high lats

S hemis salin high during N hemis winter

salinity varies in upper ocean 300m. deep ocean salin not varied

cold water in arctic sinks deep down, creates deep ocean currents

salinity increases; river flow, atmso, biological interactions

decreases; salt spray, chem. reac, biological interact, adsorption, evaporation


ions w/ long res time abundant in ocean

more abundant elements in oceans have longer res times, removed slowly

-helps describe the cycling of chem. species [nutrients] rapidly b/w bio pool and dissolved pool

acid release H+

base release OH-

pH below 4.5 all fish die


ocean is layered by density

salinity lower in polar regions because of precip and runoff

salinity at surface varies with lat, not deep ocean

high lat low surface salin

density increase with temp decrease

density of poles affected mostly by salinity, because of uniform yearly temp


ocean has a “whispering” gallery

put hydrophones in certain continental shelf place, hear and ident a ship from across the world.


pycno/thermo-cline only present in low lats. High lats, more uniform

ocean layering

-mixed surface; surface-300m

-upper waters; 300m-1000m

-deep waters; 1000m cold

carbonite ions; most abundant in streams, least in ocean [due to res time]

chloide ions; not so much in streams, but abundant in ocean [due to res time]

3.3b metric tons of salt spray leave the ocean each year.

entire vol of ocean recycled by hydrothermal circulation

sys finishes every 3m yrs


adsorption; ions removed from sea [physical attachment]

buffering; process by which carbonate is involved in keeping seawater neutral

dead organisms are antacids for deep ocean.
salinity low at high lat, highest at cancer and Capricorn, dips at eq.

at high lat sea ice formation/melting not a factor

cancer/Capri are tropical continental and maritime deserts
halocline; layer of rapidly changing salinity

high lat; salin increases with depth

low lat; salin decreases with depth
seawater density is 2-3% greater than pure water.

temp inc, dense dec

salin inc, dense inc

press inc, dense inc

only temp and salin affect surface density

deep ocean water is only 5% denser than surface water.


pycnocline; rapidly changing density

thermocline; rapidly changing temperature

thermoclines can develop in pools, ponds, and lakes also

pycno/thermo not develop much in high lats

isothermal/isopycnal; high lat waters

Ferdinand Magellan made first circumnavigation of earth

subvids of geo time once based on available evidence

lithosphere contains mantle and crust

continental crust rock is slight light

continental crust that is thicker, hotter, rises further out of ocean

lithosphere heated by asthenosphere will rise

most primitive life did not need sunlight

faster spreading, broader mountain range

slow spread equals steep, rigid terrain

earthquakes best describe plate boundaries

abyssal hill avg 200m, less than 1000m, above that, it is a seamount

fracture zones are not transform plate boundaries

continental rise=steep b/w shelf and slope

Aleutian islands due to volcanic activity

well developed shelves along active margins

shelfs relates to sea lvl and erosion

all bathymetry require time at sea

ocean surface height depends on bottom contours

satellites have not mapped entire ocean

there are large areas of ocean floor almost unexplored

hypso curve allows to tell how much water in ocean

maj of ocean floor below 4km deep

maj land below 1km high

can determine % planet covered by ocean

avg depth ocean 4X avgs height land

well developed continental rise; passive margin w/ rivers draining

margin w/ wide shelf, gentle slope

calcareous ooze is warm

as temp dec 20-5 deg C, dense inc

4 deg C dense peaks, then declines

H2O dense greatest at 4 deg C

latent heat can transfer energy from one place to another

evap 585


vap 540

increased salin results in LOWER temp req to freeze



high temp areas more likely to have lower density


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