Microsoft Word ell2 Ethnologue doc

---

Article prepared for the Elsevier Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2

nd

 edition. 

Submitted:  10 Nov 2004 

© 2004  Gary F. Simons and Raymond G. Gordon, Jr. 

 

 

Ethnologue 

 

Gary F. Simons 

SIL International, Dallas, USA 

 

Raymond G. Gordon, Jr. 

SIL International, Dallas, USA 

 

 

Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a reference work cataloging all known languages of the 

present-day world. Now in its fifteenth edition (2005), the Ethnologue identifies 6,912 living 

languages, both spoken and signed.  These are distinct languages that have living mother-tongue 

speakers. A few hundred recently extinct languages are documented as well. 

For over 50 years, the Ethnologue has been compiled and published by SIL International, a 

nonprofit, nongovernmental organization that studies, documents, and assists in developing the 

world’s lesser-known languages. Information comes from a variety of sources including reliable 

published sources, a network of field correspondents, and numerous personal communications 

that are confirmed by consulting published sources or the network of correspondents. The 

editorial staff processes approximately 10,000 updates to the database every year. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

2 

 

History of the Ethnologue 

The Ethnologue was founded by Richard S. Pittman who was motivated by the desire to share 

information on language development needs around the world with his colleagues in SIL 

International as well as with other language researchers. The first edition in 1951 was ten 

mimeographed pages and included information on 46 languages or groups of languages. Maps 

were first included in the fourth edition (1953). The publication transitioned from mimeographed 

pages to a printed book in the fifth edition (1958). Dr. Pittman continued to expand his research 

through the seventh edition (1969) which listed 4,493 languages. 

In 1971 Barbara F. Grimes became editor. She had assisted with the Ethnologue since 1953 

(fourth edition) and took on the role of research editor in 1967 for the seventh edition (1969). She 

continued as editor through the fourteenth edition (2000). In 1971 information was expanded 

from primarily minority languages to encompass all known living languages of the world. 

Between 1967 and 1973 Ms. Grimes completed an in-depth revision of the information on Africa, 

the Americas, the Pacific, and a few countries of Asia. During her years as editor, the number of 

identified languages grew from 4,493 to 6,809, and the information recorded on each expanded so 

that the published work more than tripled in size. 

The fifteenth edition (2005) was edited by Raymond G. Gordon, Jr. It reflects an increase of 

103 languages over the previous edition. Most of these are not newly discovered languages, but 

are ones that had been previously considered dialects of another language. 

The problem of language identification 

Due to the nature of language and the various perspectives brought to its study, it is not surprising 

that a number of issues prove controversial. Of preeminence in this regard is the definition of 

language itself. Since languages do not have self-identifying features, what actually constitutes a 

language must be operationally defined. That is, the definition of language one chooses depends 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

3 

 

on the purpose one has in identifying a language. Some base their definition on purely linguistic 

grounds. Others recognize that social, cultural, or political factors must also be taken into 

account. 

Every language is characterized by variation within the speech community that uses it. The 

resulting speech varieties are more or less divergent from one another. These divergent varieties 

are often referred to as dialects. They may be distinct enough to be considered separate languages 

or sufficiently similar as to be considered merely characteristic of a particular geographic region 

or social grouping within the speech community. Scholars do not all share the same criteria for 

what constitutes a “language” and what features define a “dialect.” The Ethnologue applies the 

following basic criteria: 

•  Two related varieties are normally considered varieties of the same language if speakers 

of each variety have inherent understanding of the other variety at a functional level (that 

is, can understand based on knowledge of their own variety without needing to learn the 

other variety). 

•  Where spoken intelligibility between two varieties is marginal, the existence of a 

common literature or of a common ethnolinguistic identity with a central variety that both 

understand can be a strong indicator that they should nevertheless be considered varieties 

of the same language. 

•  Even where there is enough intelligibility between varieties to enable communication, the 

existence of well-established distinct ethnolinguistic identities can be a strong indicator 

that they should nevertheless be considered to be different languages. 

Increasingly, scholars are recognizing that languages are not always easily treated as discrete 

isolatable units with clearly defined boundaries between them. Rather, languages are more often 

continua of features that extend across both geographic and social space. The Ethnologue 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

4 

 

approach to listing and counting languages as though they were discrete, countable units does not 

mean to preclude a more dynamic understanding of the linguistic makeup of the countries of the 

world. In fact, particular language entries in the Ethnologue list known dialects and often 

comment on the similarity and intelligibility relationships among them. In the final analysis, 

however, the Ethnologue lists and counts languages as distinguished by the criteria named above 

because it serves as a baseline for those who are developing language policy and making plans for 

language development. It is also foundational for those, like librarians and archivists, who would 

classify written and spoken materials with respect to the languages they are in, or would organize 

pieces of language-related information with respect to the languages they are about. 

Three-letter language identifiers 

A distinctive feature of the Ethnologue over the years has been its use of three-letter codes to 

uniquely identify the languages of the world. Any enterprise that would categorize language-

related resources so that others might effectively retrieve those resources depends on the uniform 

identification of the languages to which they pertain. Simply using language names for this 

purpose is not adequate since the same language is typically known by many names and those 

names change over time. Furthermore, different languages may be known by the same name. 

Thus, the most effective approach is to use standardized language identifiers. 

Standardized language identifiers were introduced into the Ethnologue in 1971 by then 

consulting editor, Joseph E. Grimes, when he transformed the typesetting tapes for the seventh 

edition (1969) into a computerized database on languages of the world. The work was done at the 

University of Oklahoma under a grant from the National Science Foundation. In 1974 the 

database was moved to a computer at Cornell University where Dr. Grimes was professor of 

linguistics; it was moved to a personal computer in 1979. Since 2000 it has been housed at the 

headquarters of SIL International in Dallas, Texas. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

5 

 

One feature of the database since its inception has been a system of three-letter language 

identifiers. Grimes explained this feature as follows in the 1974 final report for the grant: “Each 

language is given a three-letter code on the order of international airport codes. This aids in 

equating languages across national boundaries, where the same language may be called by 

different names, and in distinguishing different languages called by the same name.” While the 

codes were used behind the scenes in the database that generated the eighth and ninth editions, it 

was not until the tenth edition (1984) that they appeared in the publication itself. 

The fifteenth edition (2005) marked an important milestone in the development of the 

language identifiers, namely, their emergence as a draft international standard. In 1998, the 

International Organization for Standardization adopted ISO 639-2—its standard for three-letter 

language identifiers. That was based on a convergence of ISO 639-1 (its earlier standard for two-

letter language identifiers adopted in 1988) and of ANSI Z39.53 (also known as the MARC 

language codes, a set of three-letter identifiers developed within the library community and 

adopted as an American National Standard in 1987). The current standard, ISO 639-2, has proven 

insufficient for many purposes since it has identifiers for fewer than 400 individual languages. 

Thus, in 2002, ISO TC37/SC2 invited SIL International to participate in the development of a 

new standard based on the language identifiers in the Ethnologue. The new standard was to be a 

superset of ISO 639-2 that would provide identifiers for all known languages. Consequently, 

hundreds of the Ethnologue language identifiers were changed in order to achieve alignment with 

ISO 639-2. In 2004 the proposed new standard, ISO 639-3, passed the first round of balloting by 

national standards bodies to attain the status of Draft International Standard. The three-letter 

language identifiers in the fifteenth edition of the Ethnologue are thus the codes of ISO/DIS 639-

3. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

6 

 

Endangered languages 

Language endangerment is a serious concern to which linguists and language planners have 

turned their attention in the last decade. For a variety of reasons, speakers of some languages are 

motivated to stop using their language and to use another. Parents may begin to use only that 

second language with their children. Eventually there may be no speakers who use the language 

as their first or primary language and frequently the language ceases to be used altogether and the 

language becomes extinct—existing, perhaps, only in recordings or written records and 

transcriptions. The concern about language endangerment is centered, first and foremost, around 

the factors which motivate speakers to abandon their language and the consequences of language 

death for the community of (former) speakers of that language. Since language is closely linked 

to culture, loss of language almost always is accompanied by social and cultural disruptions as 

well. Secondarily, those concerned about language endangerment recognize the implications of 

the loss of linguistic diversity both for the linguistic and social environment generally and for the 

academic community which is devoted to the study of language more specifically.  

There are two dimensions to the evaluation and characterization of endangerment—the 

number of speakers of the language and the number and nature of the domains in which the 

language is used. A language may be endangered because there are fewer and fewer people who 

speak that language. It may also, or alternatively, be endangered because it is being used for 

fewer and fewer functions. The Ethnologue attempts to provide data on both of these dimensions 

whenever it is available. 

Language endangerment is a matter of degree. At one end of the scale are languages that are 

vigorous and perhaps are even expanding in numbers of speakers or functional areas of use. At 

the other end are languages that are on the verge of extinction. In between are many degrees of 

greater or lesser endangerment. The Ethnologue does not attempt to identify the level of 

endangerment of each language listed but does specifically identify those languages at the far end 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

7 

 

of the scale by indicating “Nearly extinct” at the end of the language entry. A language is listed as 

nearly extinct when the speaker population is fewer than 50 or when the number of speakers is a 

very small fraction of the ethnic group. In the fifteenth edition, 497 languages are so designated. 

How to identify the level of endangerment of the remaining languages that are not designated 

as nearly extinct is not necessarily clear. Linguists seek to identify trends in language use, such as 

a decrease in the number of speakers or a decrease in the use of the language in certain domains 

or functions. An increase in bilingualism, both in the number of bilinguals and in their 

proficiency levels, is often associated with these trends. When data are available, the following 

factors which may contribute to endangerment are reported in the language entries: small 

population size, bilingualism, urbanization, modernization, migration, industrialization, the 

function of each language within a society, and whether or not children are learning it. Such 

factors interact within a society in dynamic ways that are not necessarily predictable. As a 

scholarly consensus forms that can be applied worldwide, a scale of endangerment is becoming 

increasingly possible. In the meantime, only brief statements about the above factors are given for 

each language as data becomes available. 

Overview of contents 

The Ethnologue begins with an “Introduction” and “Statistical Summaries.” The latter give a 

summary view of the world language situation in terms of numerical tabulations of living 

languages and number of speakers by world area, by language size, by language family, and by 

country. Then follows the main body of the work in “Part 1: Languages of the World.” This 

section provides detailed information on all known living languages of the world organized by 

area and by country. An extensive bibliography is located at the end of this section. “Part 2: 

Language Maps” provides 208 color maps locating the languages in most countries of the world. 

Finally, “Part 3: Indexes” consists of three indexes: a language name index listing all of the 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

8 

 

39,491 distinct names that are associated with the languages described in Part 1, a language code 

index listing all of the three-letter language identification codes that are used in Part 1, and a 

country index listing the pages on which the section for that country begins in Part 1 and Part 2. 

In Part 1, languages are listed by country under the five major geographic areas of Africa, 

Americas, Asia, Europe, and Pacific. The entry for a country begins with a header giving 

summary information about the country including official name, total population, a listing of 

national or official languages, a listing of recent immigrant languages, country literacy rates, and 

a count of languages indigenous to the country. This header is followed by an entry for each 

language of the country that is not a recent immigrant. 

Entries are alphabetized by the primary name of the language. This is followed by all known 

alternate names and the three-letter identification code. An estimate of the speaker population is 

then given; there may also be an estimate of monolingual speakers, or of the size of the ethnic 

group (including those who no longer speak the language). Next, the location of the language 

group within the country is described, followed by the genetic classification of the language. 

Where dialects are known to exist, these are listed along with alternate names. Comments on 

intelligibility and similarity relationships among dialects or with neighboring languages may 

follow. Next are notes on language use, including functions of the language (such as official 

language or language of wider communication), viability, domains of use, age range of speakers, 

attitudes toward the language, and bilingual proficiency in other languages. These are followed 

by notes on the status of language development, including literacy rates, use in elementary or 

secondary schools, scripts used for writing, existence of published literature, and use in media. 

The entry closes with information in miscellaneous categories including general remarks, 

linguistic typology, geological and ecological environment, subsistence type of the speakers, and 

religions. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

9 

 

Further reading 

Gordon, R. G., Jr. (ed.) (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, (15th edn.). Dallas: SIL 

International. Web edition at: 

http://www.ethnologue.com

. 

Hale, K., Krauss, M., and others. (1992). Endangered languages. Language 68(1):1

−42. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

10 

 

Abstract 

Ethnologue: Languages of the World is a reference work published by SIL International that 

catalogs all known languages of the present-day world. Now in its fifteenth edition, the 

Ethnologue identifies 6,912 living languages, both spoken and signed. This article recounts the 

50-year history of the Ethnologue, describes the criteria used for language identification, traces 

the development of the three-letter language identification codes that have been a distinctive of 

the Ethnologue, discusses ways in which the Ethnologue documents the problem of language 

endangerment, and gives an overview of the contents of the complete work. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

11 

 

Biographies 

 

Gary F. Simons is Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs, SIL International.  In 

this role he oversaw the production of the fifteenth edition of the Ethnologue as 

Executive Editor. In recent years he has been actively engaged with the linguistics 

community in matters relating to digital language archiving and standards for language 

identification. Before taking up his current role in 1999, he spent 15 years directing SIL’s 

Academic Computing Department where he oversaw the development of language 

software tools and of the SIL web site. Prior to that he did field work with SIL in 

Solomon Islands (1977-1983) as language surveyor and as translation advisor for North 

Malaita. In 1979, he received a Ph.D. in general linguistics from Cornell University (with 

minor emphases in Computer Science and Classics). His dissertation, Language 

Variation and Limits to Communication, was supervised by Joseph E. Grimes and deals 

with the problem of language identification. 

 

 

Raymond G. Gordon, Jr. has worked with SIL International since 1962.  Most recently he has 

served as editor for the Ethnologue (2000-2004). From 1984 to 1995 he served in field 

administration overseeing linguistic and translation work in North America. He had previously 

served as an SIL instructor and consultant in linguistics and literacy. From 1967 to 1974 he did 

linguistic research and translation work on the Crow Indian Reservation in Montana. 

In 1981, he 

received a Ph.D. in general linguistics from Cornell University. 

---

Simons and Gordon, Ethnologue  

12 

 

Key words and cross-references 

 

Ethnologue 

SIL International 

language identification 

language vs. dialect 

endangered languages, language endangerment 

three-letter codes, language codes 

ISO 639 

 

(any of the above that have entries in the Encyclopedia are also candidates for cross-references)