Review of social psychological theories

TOPIC 11 : REVIEW OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

Formulating of hypothesis and theories

The starting point of research is an idea, or a hypothesis, that the researcher wants to test. Hypothesis are derived from -

1. 
   Inspiration from previous theories and research-eg Leon Festinger was dissatisfied with the inability of behaviorist theories to explain attitude change. He formulated a new approach –dissonance theory-that made specific predictions about when and how people would angle their attitude. Later researchers were not satisfied and they conducted further research. Social psychologists, like scientists in other disciplines, engage in continual process of theory refinement.
   
2. 
   Hypothesis based on personal observations-researchers observe a phenomenon in everyday life that they find interesting. Observations can stem from their personal experience, from literature or from current events –researchers can construct a theory about why this phenomenon occurred and design a study to see if they are right.
   

Theories

A theory is an integrated set of principles that describes, explains and predicts observed events. Theories provide explanations for our observations and enable us to predict future events. A theory integrates various principles e.g of a theory is planned behavior theory.

Theories are not facts or laws and their tenability( ability to maintained) should be tested in practice.

Basic and Applied psychologists differences

Basic and applied psychologists differ in two important ways

1. 
   Basic social psychologists are particularly interested in developing and testing theories, while applied social psychologists focus on understanding and reading practical problems. Basic SP may conduct studies merely out of scientific curiosity about some phenomenon, while ASP specifically try to contribute towards solving social problems.
   

ASP to improve people’s quality of life. They do not have to conduct studies themselves to learn more about a phenomenon causing the problem at hand.

Theory development is not their main interest, it is not the primary reason they do research (Steg et al 2008)

2. 
   Basic social psychologists tend to follow a deductive approach. They start with a particular theory and examine to what extend the theory may be helpful in understanding various types of social behavior.( general to specific)
   

In contrast ASP tend to follow and inductive approach they start from a specific social problem ,and examine to what extend various theories may help to understand this specific problem, and which theory provides the best explanation of the particular behavior causing the problems. (Specific –genera)

Basic and applied psychology similarities

Basic and applied psychologists are similar in many ways -

1. 
   Both are interested in developing and testing theories (although generally not the primary interest of ASP). Valid theories are useful in solving social problems (Lewin, 1951). Theories provide explanations for human behavior. They are very useful for understanding causes of social problems and may suggest techniques as to structure problem situations and to find critical factors ( such as attitudes or values) causing behavior or cogmitions. Theories help to develop inteventions by specifying variables and conditions that must be controlled or changed inorder to reach our goals. Eg a study by Taylor et al (1985) showed that when women with breast cancer were asked how they were copying with their condition of the women.
   

1. 
   Believed that there were others who were worse off than them no matter how serious their problems were.
   
2. 
   If they did not know of any specific person who had been more serious afflicted, they imagined others, even, even fabricated a target i.e they cognitively constructed a comparison target themselves.
   

This study used social comparison theory to understand how woman cope with breast cancer- their study showed that downward composition (comparison with those who were worse off) seemed to help with breast cancer by allowing them to feel better about themselves and their own situation.

This suggests that coping behavior among woman with breast cancer can be improved by providing breast cancer patients with examples of woman and who are worse off compared with themselves.

-people working in a group, each member does not put much effort eg as when working above alone (social loafing) –this allows for prediction of what happens when people work together.

2. 
   Both Basic and applied social psychologists are sciences-that is
   

1. 
   They both rely on scientist methods
   
2. 
   They are guided by the core values of science
   

Social Psychological theories

1. 
   The self
   

1. 
   Self perception theory
   

(Bem 1976, 1972). When our attitude and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situations in which it occurs. If you are not sure which food you really like –you say I always eat pies. is that the food you like?. Observations are important sources of self knowledge.

-According to Bem two conditions should be met for one to infer feelings from thoughts

1. 
   You have not really thought about what you like to eat
   
2. 
   You need to think about why you behave the way you did- maybe you can only afford pies and not pizza-you do not really love pies.
   

2. 
   Social comparison theory
   

(Festinger, 1954) asserts that the self is derived from social comparisons where our feelings, thoughts and behaviors are compared to (often similar) others such that a social identity and sense of self emerges.

iii)Social cognition

Looks at the reciprocal interactions between the social would and mental /cognitive process

1. 
   Cognitive algebra theory
   

(Anderson 1965, 78, 81) suggests that impression of people are formed by combining pieces of information about a person to complete a whole picture. It looks at how information that is positive or negative is put together to give a general impression. Three algebraic processes used are-

a)summation -an impression is created by adding together each piece of information about an individual.

b) Averaging- there is averaging of person’s characteristics such that they are seen as more favorable if on the whole they display more positive attitudes.

c)Weighted average-impression made by giving weight /value to pieces of information.

iii)Attribution theory

Atribution is the process of assigning causes of our own behavior to that of others (Hogg and Vaughan 2005)

Kelly’s causal attribution theory

According to Kelly in an effort to answer the question why about others behavior we focus on information relating to 3 major dimensions.

1. 
   Consensus –the extent to which other people behave the same way towards the same stimulus as the actor does.
   
2. 
   Consistency –the extent to which a person`s behavior is unwavering over time(different times)
   
3. 
   Distinctiveness – the extent to which the person reacts in the same manner to other different stimuli events. If a person reacts in the same way to a wide range of stimuli distinctiveness is low.
   

Why did the boss yell at Mary?

1. 
   Internal attribution –it was something about the boss if:
   

Consensus is low –boss is the only one working in the store who yells at Mary

Distinctiveness high –boss yells at all employees

Consistency high -boss yells at Mary every time he sees her

2. 
   External attributions –it was something about Mary when
   

Consensus is high-all employees yell at Mary

Distinctiveness is high –boss does not yell at other people

Consistency high –boss yells at Mary every time he sees her

Cognitive dissonance :Festinger

-a drive or feeling of discomfort originally defined as being caused by two or more inconsistent cognitions-or by performing on action that is discrepant from ones customary , typically positive self conception

-cd produces discomfort which can be reduced by

a)changing our behaviour to bring it in line with the dissonant cognition

b)justifying our behaviour though changing one of the cognitions to make it less dissonant (: more consonant ) with the behaviour

c)by attempting to justify our behaviour by adding new cognition that are consonant with the behaviour therefore support it

Theory of planned behaviour

-a theory of how attitudes guide behaviour suggesting at individuals consider the impplications of the action before deciding to perform various behaviours

- the first predictor of how we will act in a given situation in the strength of our intentions with respect to that situation (AZJEN 1987 )

-lets say a student is considering having dreadlocks –(intention ) will he actually do that? - the answer depends on his intentions and these are influenced by 3 factors

1)the person’s attitude towards behaviour-if he believes dreadlocks are dirty-his intention will be low

2)subjective norms –how others will evaluate this behaviour-if others will disapprove his intention(behavior may not be performed) if others approve intention becomes high.

3)Perceived behavioural control- the extent to which a person perceives a behaviour as hard or easy to accomplish –easy to accomplish-high intentions.