Workforce Development and Occupational Education Theories Handbook Style Guide and Template



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Workforce Development and Occupational Education
Theories Handbook Style Guide and Template


Use the following guidelines when writing articles for inclusion in the Workforce Development and Occupational Education Theories Handbook.

  • An article template is provided on the following page. This template must be used when writing articles for the handbook.

  • Avoid changing the font and styles used in the template. Use only Heading 2 (Times New Roman, 14pt, Bold) for the article title, Heading 3 (Times New Roman, 12pt, Bold) for bolded article sub-titles, and Paragraph style (Times New Roman, 12pt) for all body text.

  • All article content should be double-spaced.

  • The total length of the article should be no more than five pages in length.

  • Make sure to cite and reference ALL information provided in your paper according to the current APA format.  If you are unsure about how citations or references should be used, check the APA manual.  References should be from available sources that will be reproducible.  Avoid using web sites as sources of information because links frequently change and information may not be reliable.  The OSU library is the best source of information.

  • All figures and tables should follow current APA guidelines.

  • If a figure is used, be sure to provide the source files used to create the figure.

  • If you use information from copyrighted sources, you must submit documentation supporting that permission has been granted by the copyright holder for you to use the information in the way presented in the article and handbook.


Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory


Theory: Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Theorist(s): Leon Festinger

Keywords: Social Sciences, Social

Biography:


Leon Festinger was born on May 8, 1919, in Brooklyn, New York. He attended City College of New York and graduated with a B.S. in psychology in 1939. He received his M.S. (1940) and his Doctorate of Psychology (1942) from the University of Iowa. He married Marry Ballou and they had three children. He divorced her and married Trudy Bradley. They remained married until his death on February 11, 1989, at the age of 69 (Friedman, 2000). Festinger studied under Dr. Kurt Lewin and continued research on many of Dr. Lewin’s theories. He worked with Dr. Lewin until his death in 1947. Many of Dr. Festinger’s most important theories arose from his work with Dr. Lewin (Friedman, 2000).

In 1943, Dr. Festinger left the University of Iowa and obtained a position as a statistician at the University of Rochester for the Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots. He moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1945 (Friedman, 2000). At MIT, Festinger worked on a team hand-picked by Lewin for the Research Center for Group Dynamics. Dr. Festinger stayed with the research team until Lewin’s death in 1947. During that time, Dr. Festinger published many articles. After Dr. Lewin’s death, the group moved to the University of Michigan. There, they joined the Survey Research Center and the two groups became the Institute for Social Research (ISR). Dr. Festinger left Michigan in 1951 to spend a short time as a professorship at the University of Minnesota before moving to Stanford University in 1955. In 1964, Festinger left the field of social psychology (Friedman, 2000), but he maintained an active role through the New School for Social Research, which he joined in 1968. He stayed with the New School for Social Research until his death in 1989.

Festinger received many honors and awards during his career. Among them included: Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award and election to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1959; a member of the National Academy of Sciences, 1972; Distinguished Senior Scientist Award and the Einstein Visiting Fellow of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1980 (Friedman, 2000). Festinger also wrote extensively during his career. Friedman (2000) cited a dozen of Festinger’s works in his dissertation. Some of the most famous of these were “The Role of Group Belongingness in a Voting Situation” (1947), “Informal Social Communication” (1950), “A Theory of Social Comparison” (1954), When Prophecy Fails (1956) and A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957).

Description of Theory:


According to Elliot Aronson (1997), Festinger’s idea was that if a person

“holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, he experiences dissonance: a negative drive state. Because experience of dissonance is unpleasant, the person will strive to reduce it – usually by struggling to find a way to change one or both cognitions to make them more consonant with one another.”

Aronson further explains that one of the most tantalizing aspects of dissonance theory is that it challenges reinforcement theory. Cognitive dissonance theory helped to explain (and for some, justify) behaviors that people would have claimed to be out of character for themselves. The dissonance theory was used to explain the behavior of both adults and children.

Moreno (2005) explains the “factors that affect the amount of dissonance that an individual experiences:



  1. Dissonance is increasingly proportionate to the number of conflicting cognitions

  2. Dissonance increase as the extent of discriminative elements between cognitions increases

  3. The individual is capable of modifying the importance of the relationship between his or her cognitions (dissonant/consonant)

  4. Dissonance is conversely relative to the amount of consonant cognitions

Theory Measurement and Instrumentation:


Festinger used a series experiments to determine the validity of his theory. His most famous experiment was with Carlsmith. Aronson (2005) explains how the experiment was conducted. A participant in the study was given an extremely mundane task to complete. At the end of the task, the man was offered either $1 or $20 and asked to tell the next participant that he loved work involved in the experiment. Festinger hypothesized that if the participant was offered merely $1, the only way he could convincingly tell the next participant that he loved the activity involved was to believe it himself. The participants who were offered $20 felt that they were being amply compensated for delivering their lie.

This also led to how Cognitive Dissonance Theory became less popular as time went on. Aronson explains that much of the experimentation concerning Festinger’s Cognitive Dissonance Theory involved deception and as college review boards became more stringent in their requirements for experiments involving human participants, it became harder to conduct them.



Prepared by: Muhd K. Omar and Megan Martin

References:

Aronson, E. (1997). Back to the future: Retrospective review of leon festinger's--A theory of cognitive dissonance. The American Journal of Psychology, 110(1), 127-137. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/224840246?accountid=4117



Friedman, B. J. (2000). An historical review of the life and works of an important man: Leon festinger. Carlos Albizu University). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , 77-77 p. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/304674707?accountid=4117. (304674707).

Moreno, C. W. K. (2005). Cognitive dissonance as a factor in physicians' response to feedback regarding their treatment of psychological disorders. Alliant International University, Fresno). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, , 157-157 p. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/305341533?accountid=4117. (305341533).
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