deutsche Lande
(German lands) was
much more common than the singular
Deutschland
; and throughout the middle
ages there were inconsistencies and fluctuations in the name used, with
regnum
Alamannae, regnum Germaniae
or
Teutonicae
or
Romanorum
prevailing at
different times. A further complication is the relationship between German
kingship and the emperorship, on which more below. It should also not be
forgotten that Germany is probably unique among modern European states in
having a name derived not from a tribe or territory, but from a spoken language.
These debates about terminology and dating the beginnings of ‘German
history’ derived essentially from the political complexity of the history of the
German peoples. Whatever view one holds on when the story should
legitimately start – and what should be considered as ‘background’ rather than
‘history’ – an attempt can be made to recount the details of its complexity.
GERMANY IN THE EARLY AND HIGH MIDDLE AGES
Mediaeval Germany under the Saxon (or Ottonian) and Salian dynasties, from
the accession of Duke Henry of Saxony in 919 to the death of Henry III in 1056,
was characterised by the feudal organisation of society and politics, with the
dominance of a military aristocracy; the development of what was to become the
‘Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation’; and by relatively harmonious
relations of church and state. When recounting the structures of high politics and
religion, the general condition of the vast masses of the population must be
constantly borne in mind. At the end of this period, in the mid-eleventh century,
the total population of the German lands was probably around 5 or 6 million.
(Population estimates must remain tentative for pre-modern times.) The majority
of people lived in very small villages, hamlets, or isolated farmsteads surrounded
by small agricultural clearings amid vast forests. Houses were in the main very
primitive huts: only royal palaces, castles, churches and monasteries were built
to last. Life for most people was, in Hobbes’s famous phrase, ‘nasty, brutish and
short’. Average life expectancy was little over thirty years: more in the higher
classes, less in the lower. Following a very high death rate among infants, most
people died between the ages of fourteen and forty. While alive, their
experiences were generally of illness, hunger and periodic famine. They were at
the mercy of the seasons, of unpredictable events, of human violence; even when
nominally Christianised, many pagan elements (charms, superstitions, magic)
remained in the attempt to appease evil spirits or ward off misfortune. Most
people lived within a restricted compass, a limited locality of work, trading,
intermarriage; a pilgrimage might form the longest outing of a lifetime. Only
members of the aristocracy travelled great distances and had ties of kinship
across wide areas. During the period from 750 to about 1050, Old High German
and Old Saxon dialects were spoken, and there were probably rich traditions of
oral poetry, although few works of vernacular literature have survived. Literacy
was largely confined to the clergy, who wrote in Latin.
For all its apparent primitiveness, this was no longer a purely tribal society.
Feudalism was developing as the major pattern of sociopolitical organisation.
This complex system may briefly be defined at the political level as an
asymmetrical, reciprocal relationship of service, fidelity, protection and support.
The vassal would swear an oath of allegiance to the lord, who would in turn
agree to protect the vassal – a relationship symbolised by the vassal placing
joined hands between those of the lord in the act of commendation. Vassals were
given grants of land, known as fiefs, which were legally distinct from their own
property (
Eigen
, or allodial land). This system arose in the course of the
invasions, feuding and violence of the eighth century; it gradually developed,
spread and changed in subsequent centuries. Great magnates with large fiefs
were able to grant smaller fiefs to their own vassals. The royal bureaucracy also
became feudalised. Over time, there was a tendency for fiefs to become
heritable; there was also a tendency for vassals to start holding fiefs from several
lords, in which process the vassals gained in power in relation to the lords.
Feudalism as a political system was a useful means of ensuring connections
between a distant centre, via a network of subordinate ties, down to quite
personal local relationships. It partially displaced the clan or tribe as the
principle of political organisation, although the family – or dynasty – continued
to be of major importance.
The term ‘feudalism’ is also used by some historians to refer to economic
relationships, and in particular to lord–peasant relationships on the land. Unfree
peasants (serfs) were subjected to a lord to whom they owed labour services and
dues, in contrast both to free property-owning peasants and to the capitalist
relationship where formally free wage-labourers (whether working on the land
or, later, in proto-industrial or industrial enterprises) sold their labour power for
wages on the market. There were of course also political elements in this
narrower economic definition: peasants, whether free or unfree, performed
military service in return for ‘protection’ from violence over which they had no
control, in the service of causes from which they could hardly hope to benefit. It
should also be noted in this connection that the concept of feudalism has given
rise to extensive debates, not only over definition (with certain historians seeking
to extend it more widely) and location (was it uniquely European, or found
elsewhere in the world, for example in pre-modern Japan, aiding Japan’s path to
modernity?), but also over its implications. For feudal Europe, in contrast to the
civilisations of ancient China and India, for example, was uniquely dynamic and
gave rise to modern capitalist industrial society with all its implications for
world history. We shall return to these wider questions again.
By the eleventh century, there was a struggle in Germany between sub-
vassals, with non-heritable fiefs, and major vassals. In 1037 a feudal law-code
(the
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