Beacon dictionary of theology

DAYS OF CREATION. In the Bible, 'day'' commonly means a time period of 24 hours, i.e., a solar day. It also suggests an epoch or an extended period of time like "day of trouble" (Ps. 20:1), a time of judgment and revelation (Matt. 10:15). The people of God are described as "children of the day" (1 Thess. 5:5), meaning that their lives reflect God's light. One of the most significant biblical phrases is the "day of the Lord" (v. 2; 2 Pet. 3:10), which has reference to a time of visitation from God.

The days of creation are first of all to be considered as historical, not mythical times. The Genesis record details the events of these days as within the context of the divine order which we call "natural." The order of God in creation is a progressive movement from the basic stuff of creation to the perfection of creation, beginning with the provision of light which is essential to photosynthesis. God created material space for physical life and movement, including both sea and dry land. Then God provided vegetable life which could not grow without light and water. The sun and the moon may be more specialized forms of light. Animal life is sustained by vegetable life. And, finally, when everything is congenial and ready for man, he is created. The seventh day is the day which crowns the whole creative epoch. God's creative work is complete, and the "theater of the divine glory" is set for the drama of human history. The thrust of these creative days is decisively oriented toward the human story. These are clearly not mythical nor ahistorical days.

Some of the interest in the "days of creation" centers upon the length of time intended by "day." Citing the Genesis record, "the evening
and the morning were the first day," some interpret this literally as a 24-hour day. Others believe that "day" means an extended period of time. The Hebrew word yom is found some 1,480 times in the OT. It is translated "day," "time," "age," "forever," and "life." Wiley suggests that the word "day" refers to day-periods of indefinite duration. This could mean either solar days or extended periods of time. This position is more congenial to some form of theistic evolution, while the literal interpretation is more in accord with fiat creation. If the key accent of Genesis 1 is the glory of God and the divine origin of creation, then either interpretation is worthy. That appears to be the decisive point on which the analysis should turn.

See creation, evolution, theistic evolution, creationism.

For Further Reading: Wiley, CT 1:454-55; Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 152-55. leon O. hynson

DEACON. The Greek word diakonos means "minister" or "servant." In its generic sense it applies to all ministers of the gospel as servants of God. More technically it refers to an order of church officers (Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:8), usually designated the diaconate, and subordinate to bishop-presbyters. The office had precedent in synagogue officers who collected and distributed alms. The NT diaconate is traditionally thought to have originated with the choosing of the seven to serve tables, recorded in Acts 6:1-6 (New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 3:370).

After the direct apostolic supervision of the church ended, the permanent order of the ministry consisted of the pastorate and the diaconate. The pastorate had oversight of spiritual matters, the diaconate of temporal affairs (Wiley, CT, 3:132). Deacons were closely associated with and subordinate to presbyter-bishops and charged with ministering to the poor and the sick. Gradually comfort and instruction became a part of their ministry.

The postapostolic diaconate became a third order of the ministry below presbyters or priests and bishops. The deacon assisted the bishop and the presbyter in administering the sacraments and conducting public worship and largely lost the function of ministering to the poor.

In Lutheran churches deacons hold full orders and are distinguished by function only. In Reformed and Presbyterian churches their function is conducting the material affairs of the church, while in Baptist and Congregational churches they are assigned more spiritual functions (ODCC, 380).

See elder, church government, minister (ministry).

For Further Reading: Schaff, History of the Christian Church, 1:499-501; Wiley, CT 3:129-35.

M. estes Haney

DEAD SEA SCROLLS. The Dead Sea Scrolls refer to the over 500 Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic manuscripts discovered beginning in 1947 west of the Dead Sea. Among these manuscripts, dating from the period 200 b.c. to a.d. 100, are some complete copies and fragments of (1) OT books; (2) works from the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha; and (3) documents relating to the life of the Qumran sect.

The bulk of the manuscripts were preserved by the people who lived at the monastery at Qumran, possibly Essenes. They lived a strictly disciplined communal life, believing that they were living in the last days before the coming of the Messiah and the final battle with the wicked.

The importance of the Dead Sea Scrolls lies (1) in the discovery of written records, formerly scarce, from biblical times in Palestine, and (2) in the recovery of Hebrew manuscripts of OT books a full 1,000 years earlier than previously possessed. A complete scroll of Isaiah was among them. The Scrolls contribute greatly to OT textual criticism and to the understanding of NT backgrounds. They also tend to confirm the essential accuracy of our present text.

See textual criticism.

For Further Reading: Vermes, "The Dead Sea Scrolls
in English," Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia, 1:434-42; Bur-
rows, The Dead Sea Scrolls; More Light on the Dead Sea
Scrolls; LaSor, Amazing Dead Sea Scrolls; Yadin, The Mes-
sage of the Scrolls. Frank G. Carver

DEATH. Death is the antonym of life, whether this be physical or spiritual. Physical death is the separation of the spirit or soul from the body. Spiritual death is the separation of the spirit or soul from God. Physical death is made obvious by every cemetery and every obituary column. Spiritual death is understood only by revelation, as expressed in the inspired Word of God. Its definition is not carried in the dictionary nor in the encyclopedia. It is denied by the unbeliever and ignored by the world. Yet its importance is eternal.

Death, both physical and spiritual, came upon the earth at the Fall (Gen. 2:17; Rom. 5:12-17; 1 Cor. 15:21-22). Physical death actually came upon Adam himself some years later, as recorded in

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Gen. 5:4-5, although it had come upon mankind at an earlier date, at the murder of Abel (4:8).

Spiritual death for Adam and Eve occurred immediately and was indicated, by type, when God drove them out of the garden and from His immediate presence (3:23-24; cf. Isa. 59:1-2). Since man alone was created in the image and likeness of God (Gen. 1:26-27), since man alone became a living soul, created for immortality (2:7), man alone of all God's creatures can die spiritually.

Throughout the OT physical death is routinely reported, and "long [physical] life" is declared to be the reward of the righteous (Ps. 91:16). Spiritual death is not in the OT so clearly defined. Apart from the aforementioned statement from Isa. 59:1-2, probably Dan. 12:2 is the one OT reference declaring the eternal consequence of spiritual rebellion, implying spiritual death.

The Synoptic Gospels say little about spiritual death, as such. John records our Lord on several occasions on the subject, however. John 5:24, for example, declares that, upon hearing and believing, one passes "from death unto life." Jesus elaborates further on this to Martha: "He who believes in Me shall live [spiritually] even if he dies [physically], and everyone who lives and believes in Me shall never die [spiritually]" (11:25-26, nasb). See also John 6:50; 8:44, 51-52; 10:10.

Other NT writers also declared themselves on the matter of spiritual death. Paul speaks of it in Rom. 5:12; 6:23; 1 Cor. 15:21; and, in Eph. 2:1-9, includes himself: ".. . Even when we were [spiritually] dead in sins, [God] hath quickened us [to spiritual life] together with Christ." Also see Jas. 5:19-20; 2 Pet. 3:9; 1 John 5:11-12.

Although physical death descends upon the unbeliever as the original penalty of sin, to all who are united to Christ it loses its aspect of penalty and becomes a means of discipline and of entrance into the eternal presence of their God. With Paul they can say, "O death, where is thy sting?" (1 Cor. 15:55); with the Psalmist, "Precious in the sight of the Lord is the death of his saints" (Ps. 116:15; cf. Rom. 8:10; 14:7-8). During physical life those in spiritual death are offered the opportunity of "hearing" and "believing," and thereby passing "from death unto life." But, at physical death, the door of opportunity is closed and they face, in God's chosen day, "the resurrection of damnation" (John 5:24-25, 29). Eternal death, also known as "the second death" (Rev. 20:6,14), is spiritual death persisted in until the opportunity for repentance is lost at physical death.

See ETERNAL LIFE, ETERNAL PUNISHMENT.

For Further Reading: GMS, 137-44, 281 ff, 665; Ba-vinck, "Death," ISBE, 811 ff; Wiley, Culbertson, Introduction to Christian Theology, 405 ff; Wiley, CT 2:91-95; 3:212-14; Salvation Army Handbook of Doctrine, 87.

Milton S. Agnew

DEATH OF CHRIST. The death of Christ is at the heart of the NT message. Both the fact and the meaning are central in the attention of the NT writers. But the death is never treated apart from the eternal purpose of God and its outcome in resurrection triumph and salvation for mankind.

The fact is made unmistakably clear. All four Gospels elaborate the event. The horrible Cross, the pierced side, the anointed body, the sealed tomb, and the observations of innumerable witnesses—all confirm the fact and circumstances of His death. Even Bultmann calls the death of Jesus a historic (geschichtlich) fact originating in the historical (historisch) event which is the crucifixion of Jesus. Jesus truly died.

But it was a planned death, not by enemies but by God himself and by Jesus. He came to die (Phil. 2:5-8; John 10:11, 15; 12:32). On at least three specific occasions in the last year of His earthly ministry, Jesus announced both His death and resurrection (Mark 8:31; 9:31; 10:33-34). At the Arrest, Trial, and Crucifixion, Jesus was the composed Person who was most in charge (see esp. John 18:1-13).

More was involved in laying down His life for the sheep than the death pangs when He "gave up the ghost." Human sin and need spoiled heaven for the Son of God. He chose to come and die for our redemption (Phil. 2:5-8). Then there was the suffering of rejection which dogged His life and ministry. Moreover, He suffered the direct assaults of Satan in temptation. And sin-bearing shadowed His earthly life as well as His death. It was in the Garden that He sweat blood, not on the ugly Cross. It was all with loving purpose—for us and our salvation. As He took on man's lot and died, so He shares with us the triumphant resurrection and heavenly life.

See ATONEMENT, cross. BLOOD.

For Further Reading: Jewett, "Death of Christ," ZPEB, 2:72-77; Schmithals, "Death, Kill," NIDNTT, 1:429-41; Vollmer, The Modern Student's Life of Christ, 211-67; Denney, The Death of Christ. WlLBER T. dayton

DEATH OF GOD DOCTRINE. This refers to a strange understanding, made newsworthy in the middle 1960s by such theologians as Thomas J. J. Altizer and William Hamilton. It is not at all easy to understand what these theothanatologists


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were saying. Altizer seemed to be saying that God died when Christ died on the Cross.

Frederick Nietzsche (1844-1900) had declared, "God is dead." And Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-72) had announced similar impudence.

Shortly after the newspapers began to carry headlines about the death-of-God teaching, Altizer and Hamilton and others were hoping to start a learned society and a magazine through which the view would be promulgated. In 1971, the writer attended one of their "Radical Caucus" sessions, in conjunction with a large gathering of professors. In a small circle, they took up such matters as how not to commit suicide; how to get your children, now, to disbelieve; and whether there are still any satisfactions in life, and joys.

Soon the movement sustained a well-deserved virtual demise.

Powerful commentary on it was made on a wall in a New York City subway. Someone had written, "God Is Dead. Nietzsche." And some wag had written underneath it, "Nietzsche Is Dead. God."

See god, attributes (divine).

For Further Reading: Altizer, The Gospel of Christian
Atheism; Hamilton, The Death of God; Vahanian, The
Death of God. J. KENNETH GRIDER

DEATH TO SELF. Death to self is an expression used in Christian circles to refer to full consecration to Christ. It involves the renunciation of personal ambitions and selfish interests such as self-love, self-pleasing, and self-sufficiency.

Deeper life teaching makes death to self a postconversion experience. Keswickians make it the point at which a "definite decision for holiness" is made. It is portrayed as a transaction involving the yielding of self to God—a dethronement of self, and the other side of dedication to God.

The term is variously described as an inner crucifixion; a cutting off from self-infatuation; a disownment of self; the dethronement and denial of self, self-righteousness, self-esteem, self-vindication, self-glory, and self-pity. Keswickian teaching characterizes it as a point of surrender, leading into the surrendered or exchanged life. It leads to the "crucified life."

The teaching is based on such Scripture passages as Gal. 2:20; 5:24; Luke 14:26; 2 Cor. 5:15; 1 Pet. 4:2; Rom. 12:1; 8:13; 6:11, 13.

Wesleyans see death to self as accomplished not by consecration alone but by entire sanctification—God's answer to man's response of faith. The promised "rest" of Heb. 4:9-11 results in "ceasing from one's own works"—the crucified life of Gal. 2:20.

In using the expression death to self, distinction must be made between the intrinsically normal selfhood needs, such as the need for appreciation, security, fulfilment, etc., and the demands of the carnal mind, or selfish nature. The latter needs to be crucified, the former to be fulfilled. Death to selfishness is portrayed in Scripture as the way to such fulfilment. See, e.g., Luke 14:26 and Matt.. 11:29 f.

See consecrate (consecration), carnal christians, heart purity, entire sanctification, second work of grace, keswick (keswickianism).

For Further Reading: Barabas, So Great Salvation, 11 Iff, 125ff; Maxwell, Born Crucified, 57ff.

James M. Ridgway

DECALOGUE. Decalogue is a term meaning "ten words" as used in Exod. 34:28 and Deut. 4:13; 10:4. The "words" themselves are found in Exod. 20:2-17 and Deut. 5:6-22.

In the NT references are made to the Decalogue by using "commandments" (Matt. 19:17; Eph. 6:2; et al.). Today we commonly speak of the Ten Commandments.

The "ten words" were given under the most awe-inspiring circumstances from the top of the mountain of Sinai, 50 days after Israel was delivered from Egyptian bondage by Jehovah. The giving of the Decalogue stands out in bold relief as the most memorable day in all of Israel's history. It is one of the bases for the national Feast of Pentecost.

The Decalogue provides the religious and moral underpinning of both Judaism and Christianity. It inculcates two basic principles: reverence for God and respect for man. The two can never be separated. The majesty of God and the rights of human personality are alike preserved.

Thus God gave fallen man a twofold, objective moral norm. The first four commandments comprise a vertical, religious moral norm, while the last six afford fallen man a horizontal, social moral norm.

As a standard of conduct the Decalogue has never been abrogated or superseded. It is still binding upon Christians. Love to God and love to neighbor are the summaries of Christ for the first four and the last six commandments, respectively.

Many controversies surrounding the commandments began with the Reformation. A distinction between a permanent and a transitory element in the law of the Sabbath was found, not


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only by Luther and Melanchthon, but by Calvin and other theologians of the Reformed church.

The Reformers were unanimous in their observation that the Lord's Day and the Sabbath Day ' were not the same day, and they were equally unanimous that the fourth commandment was abrogated for the Christian.

The binding obligation was that all men have one day in seven to rest their bodies and their souls. Thus, early Christians used the Lord's Day for rest, study, prayer, fellowship, praise, and to strengthen the moral fiber of life.

By the beginning of the second century the Lord's Day, the first day of the week, had completely superseded and replaced the Jewish Sabbath.

The first day of the week celebrates the resurrection of Christ, while to this day for the Jews, the seventh day Sabbath commemorates the creation of the earth.

See command (commandments), law, law and grace, antinomianism, agape.

For Further Reading: Beebe, The Old Testament,
99-100; Wiley, Culbertson, Introduction to Christian The-
ology, 341, 382; Sampey, "Ten Commandments," ISBE,
5:2944; Carter, "The Biblical Morality, Its Continuing
Validity" WTJ, 2:36. WAYNE E. CALDWELL

DECISION. Decision lies at the very center of personhood, for the human power of freedom enables persons to decide upon their actions and goals.

Determinists reject the view that human actions can occur apart from general causal forces such as nature or God. According to determinism, human beings have no power in themselves to originate or resist action. Even when and if the term decision is used, such a theory rejects any notion of freedom: All actions are caused, but some are overtly compelled while others are supposedly free.

According to those who believe in human freedom, a person's freedom is the basis of the moral and religious life. Decision may be a choice from among presented alternatives (Wm. James); it may negate the given in favor of something radically new (Sartre); or by an original decision, one's life can issue forth into that habitual action and character in which pursuit of the good becomes second nature (Merleau-Ponty).

Although man's freedom is finite, his desire for the thrust toward infinity sometimes gives his decisions the character of an irrational voluntarism with strong potentials of violence. Man must recognize his limitations and make his decisions in thoughtful relation to God and others.

"Decision for Christ" is an expression used by contemporary Christians for the new birth. This kind of decision emphasizes the element of freedom in responding to Christ; for if Christ died for all, then the appropriate response of the individual is required in order to make salvation actual. Some do not appreciate the expression, however, because, they say, it smacks of superficiality; it encourages quantity without quality, and thus it reflects little of the genuine trauma connected with the new birth. The expression may even promote the idea of a humanistic mind-change without a divine transformation.

Certain biblical passages indicate the central character of decision in relation to salvation (cf. exhortations in the form of "let us" in the Book of Hebrews; encouragements in Colossians; appeal in Rom. 12:1-2). Decision is thus integral to and at the heart of salvation; but decision is always within the divine context and grounded in God's enabling.

See determinism, freedom. responsibility, morality predestination.

For Further Reading: James, The Dilemma of Deter-

minism; Sacramentum Mundi, 2:62-64; Titus, Living Is-
sues in Philosophy. R. DUANE THOMPSON

DECREES. See divine decrees.

DEISM. Deism is the name applied to a particular philosophy or theory concerning the nature of God, which arose during the Enlightenment or so-called Age of Reason. In the flush of scientific discovery and revolt against medieval superstitious ideas, reason was regarded as sufficient to answer all the problems of life. When applied to God, this meant that human reason was able to apprehend all that needed to be known about God. Thus it rejected any need for a divine revelation and all idea of the miraculous. This opinion is represented by Voltaire and Thomas Paine.

The result was the idea of a God totally apart from the universe. It has been called the "absentee landlord" view (see Dagobert D. Runes, ed., Dictionary of Philosophy, 75). Bruce describes deism as a teaching of a transcendent Deity "banished to the outside of the world" (quoted by Wiley, CT, 1:281). Some of its advocates proceeded from deism to ideas of pantheism or outright atheism.

Wiley points out that a similar idea about God was current among the Epicureans with whom Paul had to deal, as in Acts 17 (CT, 1:256).

See theism, atheism, pantheism.

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DEITY OF CHRIST—DEMYTHOLOGIZATION

For Further Reading: Purkiser, ed., Exploring Our Christian Faith 42; DCX 89 ff; Wiley, CT, 1:223, 280-81.

Leslie D. Wilcox

DEITY OF CHRIST. See christ.

DELIVERER. See redeemer.

DELUGE. See flood.

DEMIURGE. The term (demiurgos) is frequently found in classical Greek literature as a designation for "one who works for the people," "handicraftsman," "the artisan class," etc. In Plato's Timaeus, demiurgos is the craftsman or the artificer who created the visible world. Gnosticism, the Valentinians in particular, attributed this designation to an inferior deity who is responsible for the fashioning of the universe. In Plato, the Demiurge is conscious of his creative task and of his creation. Contrary to this, the Valentinians taught that the Demiurge fashioned the universe in "ignorance" and "conceit" (H. Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, 191).

The biblical doctrine of creation does not include the concept of an inferior deity involved in the creation of the universe. The Septuagint consciously omits the use of the word in reference to the creative work of God. The NT writers, while speaking of God as the sole Creator of the universe, also present a Christological view of creation (John 1:3; Col. 1:16; 1 Cor. 8:6; Rom. 11:36). In these passages Christ, the Son of God, is explicitly referred to as the Mediator or Agent through whom God accomplished His creation of the universe.

See gnosticism, creation, christ. For Further Reading; Jonas, The Gnostic Religion, 174-94; GMS, 226-30. ALEXANDER VARUGHESE