BEST LEFT AS INDIANS
195
The federal government's non-intervention in this crucial sphere does not
indicate a commitment to the viability of the native society. Yukon realities
simply interfered with the logical application of a national program. The low
priority ascribed to native affairs ensured that the government refrained from
entrenching the policy of segregation through the establishment of game
preserves. Potential development, and not native access to game, remained a
principal consideration of the government (as opposed to the Department of
Indian Affairs'). The federal authorities repeatedly fended off requests to guar-
antee Indian hunting and trapping rights in order to protect the territory for
tourist hunting and mineral development. Self-interest also had a more
immediate dimension. Retaining the Indians on reserves and providing for their
advancement toward Canadian society required money, as the treatment of the
southern Indians had demonstrated. Allowing the Indians to sustain them-
selves through harvesting provided a cost-effective means of looking after their
interests, even if it required the abrogation, or at best postponement, of declared
government assimilationist policy. While the government's motives were suspect,
or at best contradictory, the bureaucrats involved with territorial and Indian
matters nonetheless adhered to their program of leaving the Indians as hunters
and trappers.
The national commitment to social programming regulated the level of
federal involvement in Indian Affairs in the Yukon Territory. However, the
non-interventionist ethos of pre-World War II government policy-makers did not
prevent federal authorities from authorizing a welfare and medical program for
the Yukon natives, decades in advance of similar offerings for white citizens.
Importantly, even after the government expanded its national offerings after
1945, the Indians continued to receive a higher level of assistance. Dental
clinics, expanded medical care, improved educational facilities and work initia-
tives signalled the government's intention to assist those people perceived to
be in greatest need. Not until 1945 was the national dedication to assimilation
pursued with the singlemindedness ascribed to the broader sweep of federal-
Indian relations. Not until then did federal financial resources and government
attitudes combine to provide the requisite resources for a program much
discussed but, for the Yukon Indians at least, never before implemented.
The policy guidelines outlined in the Indian Act provided a framework
within which government-Indian relations functioned. Importantly, regional and
national administrators enjoyed considerable freedom in relating national
imperatives to local conditions. Of the four main elements of national Indian
policy, the encouragement of self-sufficiency (but importantly in non-agricul-
tural pursuits) and protecting the natives from the white population dominated
Yukon programming. Setting up residential reserves (as opposed to negotiated
treaty reserves) and protecting access to resources (but not going so far as to
grant game preserves) were the central tenets of Indian Affairs' administration
in the territory. Although native needs were constantly subordinated to the
pressing government concern for development, limited mining activity precluded
any significant conflict over access to land. The government avoided assimila-
tion, altering its educational program and expectations considerably and
196
KEN COATES
doggedly asserting as late as 1950 that the hunting and trapping life offered the
best prospects for the Indians. For their part, the natives agreed with the govern-
ment's position. The vast majority continued to prefer the still-economical
pursuit of game over the meagre returns from government hand-outs. The Yukon
example illustrates both that territorial policy deviated from accepted national
norms and, of equal importance, that federal programming did not remain
consistent with the concepts embodied in the Indian Act.
2.
3.
4.
NOTES
1. The author would like to acknowledge the generous assistance of Dr.
David Breen and Dr. R.A.J. McDonald, University of British Columbia, and
Dr. Dennis Essar, Brandon University.
For an excellent survey of the American literature, see Robert Berkhofer,
Jr. (1979). S. Lyman Tyler (1975) offers a text-book survey of the evolu-
tion of American Indian policy.
There are, of course, exceptions. Ronald Satz (1975) is perhaps the best.
Graham Taylor (1980), Roy Meyer (1967), and Kenneth Philip (1981 ) have
also contributed
The place to start in any survey of the literature on national policy is R.
Surtees.
Canadian Indian Policy: A Critical Bibliography
(Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1982). Special attention should be paid to the
excellent historiographical essay. L.F.S. Upton, "The Origins of Canadian
Indian Policy,"
Journal of Canadian Studies,
Vol. 8, No. 4 (1973), 51-61;
L.F.S. Upton,
Micmacs and Colonists
(Vancouver: University of British
Columbia Press, 1979), Chapter 3; Jack Stag,
Anglo-Indian Relations in
North America to 1763 and an Analysis of the Royal Proclamation of 7
October 1763 (Ottawa: Research Branch, Indian and Northern Affairs
Canada, 1981) cover the colonial period. See also Robin Fisher,
Contact
and Conflict
(Vancouver: University of British Columbia, 1978), pp. 146-
174. For the post-Confederation period, see J. Rich Ponting and Roger
Gibbons,
Out of Irrelevance: A Socio-Political Introduction of Indian
Affairs in Canada
(Toronto: Butterworths, 1980); Kahn-Tineta, Miller et
al,
Historical Development of the Indian Act
(Ottawa: DIAND, 1978);
A.G. Harper, "Canada's Indian Administration: Basic Concepts of
Objectives," American Indigena, Vol. 4, No. 2 (April 1945), 119-132;
A.G. Harper, "Canada's Indian Administration: The Treaty System,"
America Indigena,
Vol. 7, No. 2 (1947), 129-140; John Taylor, "Canada's
North-West Indian Policy in the 1870's: Traditional Premises and Necessary
Innovations," in D.A. Muise, ed.,
Approaches to Native History in Canada
(Ottawa: National Museum of Canada, History Division Papers, No. 29,
1977), 104-110; R.W. Dunning, "Some Aspects of Governmental Indian