Figure 2. Octocoral gardens from different depths within the Gulf of Mexico. (a): A 2m tall Leiopathes
glaberrima black coral colony from 200 m depth. (b): A diverse community of Stichopathes sp. black
corals, keratoisid bamboo corals, and other octocorals from 500 m depth. (c): Large, habitat-forming
Paramuricea sp. colonies from 1000 m depth. (d): A diverse community of octocorals including Iridogorgia
sp., keratoisid bamboo corals, Paramuricea biscaya, and Corallium sp. from 2000 m depth.
All photos are property of the contributors to this chapter, and should also be attributed to: (a) and (b):
The
Lophelia II project, funded by the United States Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (US BOEM) and
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Ocean Exploration and Research (NOAA
OER); (c) and (d): Ecosystem Impacts of Oil and Gas Inputs to the Gulf (ECOGIG), a consortium funded by
the Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative (GoMRI), and the Ocean Exploration Trust.
a
b
c
d
© 2016 United Nations
14
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Figure 3. Global octocoral distribution. Direct observations and collections are noted by "x" while the
shading represents the habitat suitability probability for the presence of one order (lighter orange) or all
nine orders (darker orange) Adapted from Yesson et al., 2012.
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
Figure 4. Global distribution of the major framework-forming cold-water corals. Source: Freiwald et al.,
2005, and more recent published data, n = 7213 entries.
© 2016 United Nations
15
References
Addamo, A.M., Reimer, J.D., Taviani, M., Freiwald, A., and Machordom, A. (2012).
Desmophyllum dianthus (Esper, 1794) in the Scleractinian Phylogeny and Its
Intraspecific Diversity. Plos One 7, e50215.
Adkins, J.F., Cheng, H., Boyle, E.A., Druffel, E.R.M., and Edwards, R.L. (1998). Deep-sea
coral evidence for rapid change in ventilation of the deep North Atlantic 15,400
year ago. Science 280, 725–728.
Albright, R. (2011). Reviewing the effects of ocean acidification on sexual reproduction
and early life history stages of reef-building corals. Journal of Marine Biology
(2011), ID 473615. doi:10.1155/2011/473615.
Althaus, F., Williams, A., Schlacher, T.A., Kloser, R.J., Green, M.A., Barker, B.A., Bax, N.J.,
Brodie, P. and Schlacher-Hoenlinger, M.A. (2009). Impacts of bottom trawling on
deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 397, 279-294.
Andrews, A.H., Cordes, E.E., Mahoney, M.M., Munk, K., Coale, K.H., Cailliet, G.M.,
Heifetz, J. (2002). Age, growth and radiometric age validation of a deep-sea,
habitat-forming gorgonian (Primnoa resedaeformis) from the Gulf of Alaska.
Hydrobiologia 471, 101-110.
Arantes, R.C.M., Castro, C.B., Pires, D.O., and Seoane, J.C.S. (2009). Depth and water
mass zonation and species associations of cold-water octocoral and stony coral
communities in the southwestern Atlantic. Marine Ecology Progress Series 397,
71-79.
Arrieta, J., Arnaud-Haond, S., and Duarte, C.M. (2010). What lies underneath:
Conserving the Ocean's Genetic Resources. Proceedings of the National Academy
of Sciences 107, 18318-18324.
Baco, A. R., Rowden, A. A., Levin, L. A., Smith, C. R., and Bowden, D. A. (2010). Initial
characterization of cold seep faunal communities on the New Zealand Hikurangi
margin. Marine Geology, 272(1), 251-259.
Baillon, S., Hamel, J.F., Wareham, V.E., and Mercier, A. (2012). Deep cold-water corals as
nurseries for fish larvae. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment;
doi:10.1890/120022.
Becheler, R. (2013). Feedbacks between genetic diversity and demographic stability in
clonal organisms, Ifremer, Département Environnement Profond. IUEM: Institut
Universitaire Européen de la Mer, Brest.
Boschen, R.E., Rowden, A.A., Clark, M.R., Barton, S.J., Pallentin, A., and Gardner, J.P.A.
(2015). Megabenthic asssemblage structure on three New Zealand seamounts:
© 2016 United Nations
16
implications for seafloor massive sulfide mining.
Marine Ecology Progress Series
523, 1-14.
Bostock, H. C., Tracey, D. M., Currie, K. I., Dunbar, G. B., Handler, M. R., Fletcher, S. E.
M., Smith, A.M., and Williams, M. J. (2015). The carbonate mineralogy and
distribution of habitat-forming deep-sea corals in the southwest Pacific region.
Deep Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers, 100, 88-104.
Brooke, S. and Young, C.M. (2009). In situ measurement of survival and growth of
Lophelia pertusa in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
Marine Ecology Progress Series
397, 153-161.
Brooke, S. and Järnegren, J. (2013) Reproductive periodicity of the deep-water
scleractinian coral, Lophelia pertusa from the Trondheim Fjord, Norway. Marine
Biology160:139-153.
Brooke, S. and Ross, S.W. (2014). First observations of the cold-water coral Lophelia
pertusa in mid-Atlantic canyons of the USA.
Deep-Sea Research II 104, 245-251.
Bruckner, A.W.(2002). Life-Saving Products from Coral Reefs Issues in Science and
Technology online.
Buhl-Mortensen, L., Olafsdottir, S.H., Buhl-Mortensen, P., Burgos, J.M., and
Ragnarsson, S.A. (2014). Distribution of nine cold-water coral species
(Scleractinia and Gorgonacea) in the cold temperate North Atlantic in light of
bathymetry and hydrography. Hydrobiologia. DOI: 10.1007/s10750-014-2116-x.
Cairns, S. (2007). Deep-water corals: an overview with special reference to diversity and
distribution of deep-water Scleractinia. Bulletin of Marine Science 81, 311-322.
Carranza, A., Recio, A.M., Kitahara, M., Scarabino, F., Ortega, L., López, G., Franco-
Fraguas, P., De Mello, C., Acosta, J., Fontan, A. (2012). Deep-water coral reefs
from the Uruguayan outer shelf and slope. Marine Biodiversity 42, 411–414.
Clark, M.R. and A.A. Rowden (2009). Effect of deepwater trawling on the macro-
invertebrate assemblages of seamounts on the Chatham Rise, New Zealand.
Deep Sea Research I 56, 1540-1544.
Clark, M. R. and Tittensor, D. P. (2010). An index to assess the risk to stony corals from
bottom trawling on seamounts. Marine Ecology 31, 200-211.
Colman, J.G., Gordon, D.M., Lane, A.P., Forde, M.J., and Fitzpatrick, J.J. (2005).
Carbonate mounds off Mauritania, Northwest Africa: status of deep-water corals
and implications for management of fishing and oil exploration activities. In:
Freiwald A., Roberts, J.M. (eds.) Cold-water corals and ecosystems. Springer,
Heidelberg, pp 417-441.
Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (2006). Effects of Oil and Gas Exploration and
Development at Selected Continental Slope Sites in the Gulf of Mexico. Volume I:
Executive Summary. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management
© 2016 United Nations
17