Contents Introducti

Point of articulation. On the basis of the points of articulation, consonants are divided as:
Bilabial (or labial): Both lips as the primary articulators articulate with each other. Examples: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/.


Labio-dental: The lower lip articulates with the upper teeth. Examples: /f/, /v/.
Interdental: The tip and the rims of the tongue articulate with the upper teeth.

Examples: /ð/.

Alveolar: The blade, or top and blade of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge (the upper teeth ridge).
Examples: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/, /r/.


Palato-alveolar: The blade, or the tip and blade of the tongue articulates with the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate. Examples: /c/, /j/, /s/, /z/, /j/.


Velar: A glottal obstruction, or a narrowing causing friction and vibration
between the vocal cords. However, some consonants in this category may be produced without vibration between the vocal cords. Examples: /k/, /g/, /h/.
Manner of articulation. The manner of articulation describes the different types of obstructions made by the articulators. These obstructions may be total, intermittent, partial or may merely constitute a narrowing sufficient to cause friction. According to the manner of articulation consonants are divided into 'plosives', 'affricates', 'fricatives', 'lateral', 'retroflex', and 'nasals'.
Plosives (stops): For this, there occurs a complete closure at some point in the vocal tract, behind which the air pressure builds up and is released explosively. Examples: /p/, /t/, /k/, /b/, /d/, /g/.
Affricates: For this, a complete closure appears at some point in the mouth, behind which the air pressure builds up; the separation of the articulators is slow with that of a plosive, so that friction is a characteristic second element of the sound. Examples: /j/.
Fricatives: Two articulators approximate to such an extend that the air stream passes through them with friction. The sounds produced in this way are called fricatives.
Fricatives may be voiced as /v/, /f /, /s/, /z/ and voiceless as /f/, /v/, /s/, /s/, /h/. Fricatives differ also in the shape of the narrow opening in which they are produced. In /f/, /v/, /s/, /z / it is relatively wide from side to side but very narrow from top to bottom. Because of this slit like shape of the opening, these sounds are called 'slit fricatives'. In contrast, in /s/, /z/, /c/, /j/, the opening is much narrower from side to side and deeper from top to bottom. These sounds are called 'groove fricative'.

Lateral: For lateral, a partial closure is made at some point in the mouth, the air stream being allowed to escape from one or both sides of the contact. For example, /l/ in 'loud' or 'late'.

Retroflex: In the production of this sound, the tip of the tongue is raised towards the alveolar ridge without touching it. The sides of the tongue are pressed against the upper back teeth. As the sound is produced, air flows out over the tip of the tongue and vocal cords vibrate. Example: /r/.

Nasals: These sounds are produced with a complete closure at some point in the mouth but the soft palate is lowered and hence the oral cavity is blocked and air escapes through nasal cavity. These sounds are continuants. In the voiced form, they have no noise component. They are, to this extent, vowel like. Examples: /m/, /n/ .