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![](/i/favi32.png) $-AmyloidPeriodontal Disease- Symptoms Treatment and Prevention - Nova Biomedical Books 1 edition January 2011Prostaglandins
Prostaglandins are pro-inflammatory mediators synthesised from cell membrane
phospholipids by the action of cyclo-oxygenases. Cross-sectional studies have shown that
PGE
2
levels in GCF are elevated in diseased states and that PGE
2
levels are increased in
gingivitis and periodontitis compared with health (Offenbacher et al., 1986). The levels of
PGE2 were reported to correlate with severity of disease (Heasman et al., 1998; Tsai et al.,
1998) and to discriminate between active and chronic disease.However analysis of PGE
2
is
complex and has not been readily amenable to chair side diagnostics (McCauley et al., 2002).
Neuropeptides
Neuropeptides play important roles in neurogenic inflammation including vasodilation,
plasma extravasation and recruitment of immune cells. However, a more extensive function
for neuropeptides in the regulation of immune cell activity has also been proposed (Lundy
and Linden, 2004). Nerve fibres innervating the periodontal tissues in humans are
immunoreactive to several neuropeptides including substance P (SP), calcitonin gene-related
peptide (CGRP), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) and neuropeptide Y(NPY) (Luthman
et al., 1988). Indeed SP (Linden et al., 1997) CGRP (Lundy et al., 1999), VIP (Linden et al.,
2002) and NPY (Lundy et al., 2009) have all been detected in GCF. Although the presence of
neuropeptides in GCF reflects their importance in gingival and periodontal inflammation it
remains to be determined whether neuropeptides hold promise as biomarkers of disease.
Cytokines and Chemokines
Recent studies on the usefulness of cytokines as biomarkers of periodontitis have yielded
conflicting results. Salivary levels of TNF-α were shown to be elevated in patients with
clinical indicators of periodontitis (Frodge et al., 2008). However salivary levels of
granulocyte–macrophage colony-stimulating factor, interleukin-1β, interleukin-2, interleukin-
4, interleukin-5, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, interleukin-10, interferon-γ and tumor necrosis
factor-α were later shown not to discriminate between periodontal health and disease (Teles et
al., 2009a). In a checkerboard immunoblot analysis of inflammatory mediators in GCF,
periodontitis subjects had statistically significantly higher mean levels of IL-1β and IL-8
compared to healthy subjects (Teles et al., 2009b). These findings are supported by a recent
study in which the elevated odds of clinical periodontitis were associated with elevated levels
of IL-1β in GCF (Fitzsimmons et al., 2010).Cytokine and chemokine measurements in GCF
therefore appear to be more promising than salivary measurements in terms of biomarker
potential.
Calprotectin
Neutrophils are the primary source of calprotectin, a 36-kDa protein composed of a
dimeric complex of 8- and 14-kDa subunits. The 8 kDa subunit is also known as S100 A8,
calgranulin A or macrophage migration inhibitory factor related protein-8 (MRP-8) and the
14 kDa subunit is also known asS100 A9, calgranulin B or MRP-14. MRP-8 has previously
been identified (Lundy et al., 2000) and quantified (Lundy et al., 2001) in periodontitis.
Biomarkers of Periodontal Disease: Past, Present and Future Challenges
99
Higher calprotectin levels have been reported in disease compared with health (Kido et al.,
1999). It has been suggested that calprotectin improves resistance to
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