15
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
a seal-skin float, dog sled harness, and wonderful sleds the wooden parts of which
were also connected with thongs. These inventions made it possible for aboriginal
communities to exist in extreme natural environment, where the ice covered the sea
for eight or nine months of the year, and provided them with the main resources for
subsistence.
Clothing
In winter and spring, the hunters use clothes and footwear made of the fur of young
reindeer, reindeer suede, and seal pelts. The undershirt and underpants are made
from the skins of young reindeer and worn with the fur on the inside. The outer
shirt is sewn out of reindeer skins with the fur on the outside. The most important
part of the marine hunter clothes is the upper coat. It is a lightweight piece of
outwear with a hood, worn over the undershirt so that only the collar and the fur
fringe of the undershirt sleeves and hem are revealed.
There is a specific way of making fur boots. The bootleg is made out of ringed seal
skins, or reindeer skins, and the soles are made out of bearded seal skins. Inside the
soles are covered with dry grass. For more warmth, hunters wear fur socks made
out of reindeer skins. For working in the sea hunters prefer bearded seal boots
because they are waterproof and do not get damaged by salt splashes as much as
reindeer skin boots. The hunters of the northern coast make boot soles out of polar
bear pelts. The hunters do not wear modern clothing in winter because it does not
retain warmth as well as the traditional one.
Means of Transportation
Boats and Dog Sleds
There are several traditional means of transportation used by the marine hunters of
eastern Chukotka. At sea they use the large framed boats covered with walrus and
bearded seal skins, and on land they use dog sleds. In the nineteenth century
wooden whale boats were added to skin-covered boats (of umiak type), but at
present the hunters use aluminum and rubber boats. In addition to dog sleds they
use various types of snowmobiles and off-roader vehicles. However, the old types
of transportation have not lost their importance even today.
Skin-boat
Eskimo and Chukchi skin-boats (baidara in Russian) are open, framed boats that
come in different sizes and are used for different purposes. Large boats were used
16
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
as means of transportation for long journeys. They could reach up to twenty meters
in length and carry up to four tons of cargo, or twenty five to thirty people. They
are no longer used in Chukotka, and only in a few places one can still find half-
destroyed frames of these boats.
The art of building medium-size or hunting boats called anyapik in Yupik was
almost gone in the 1970–1990s, at that time it was preserved only in the
communities of Sireniki and Nutepelmen.
Small skin-covered boats are used in almost all the settlements of eastern Chukotka
to set up fish nets, for fishing, and for hunting small seals. They are even used at
sea to cover small distances in calm weather.
Whaleboats and Aluminum Boats
The type of wooden whaleboats used by Europeans and Americans exclusively for
whale hunting came to the indigenous residents of eastern Chukotka only in the
second half of the nineteenth century with the arrival of commercial whaleres. This
boat was originally adopted for use at the settlements located in lagoons, coves,
and bays, where it could be docked with an anchor.
Sled Dogs
The sled dogs have always been the most important part in the system of
traditional hunting in Chukotka. They played a great role in the winter hunting for
seals on the shore-fast and drift ice, and also served as means of transportation
between communities.
Walrus Hunting
Spearing at the rookery and in the water. Walruses are speared with special
spears (pikes) at the onshore rookeries and in the water. An experienced hunter can
spear a walrus in seconds by aiming the thrust of the spear directly into the heart.
The animal dies immediately without moving an inch from its spot.
Hunting on the ice. This type of hunting was prominent even fifteen to twenty
years ago, but in the recent several years its use has significantly decreased. This is
due to the lack of drift ice strong enough to bear these heavy animals.
Hunting in the water. Hunting for swimming walruses, in open water clear of ice,
is conducted by all teams of hunters from their skin boats, whaleboats, and
aluminum boats. The hunters drive the walruses into a thick group with gunshots.
17
Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of
Indigenous Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Marine Hunters of Chukotka
They also use a special clapper made of whale baleen or a strip of shock absorbing
rubber. The noise made by the clapper hitting the water imitates the sound of a
killer whale, the greatest enemy of the walruses, slapping its tail against the water.
These claps scare and disorient the walruses, who then become an easy game for
the hunters. A dead walrus starts sinking almost immediately, so the hunters first
harpoon several animals, and shoot only after attaching floats to their bodies.
Whaling
The photographs show a joint hunt for the grey whale by people from two
settlements, Yanrakynnot and Novoye Chaplino.
Spiritual and Cultural Traditions
The people living in the Bering Strait region are the accomplished hunters of
whales, walruses, and seals. The feeling of an unbreakable bond with nature and
sea hunting permeates their economy, culture, and languages. The winds, currents,
ice, fog, and tides are the part of the life of these ocean hunters, and sea mammals,
birds, and fish are at its core. Hunting brings joy to the Eskimo and the Chukchi,
just as it did to other ancient indigenous peoples. It brings them comfort and is the
focus of their life. These people do not live to ‘conquer’ the nature. Instead they
strive to stay in agreement with nature, and to preserve their traditions, customs,
and distinctive worldview.
The core of the traditional knowledge of Bering Strait hunters is an understanding
of the interconnectivity of all living things, and of the interactions of all natural
objects, including human beings, their constant interflow and rebirth.
The system of calendar festivals and rituals meant to ensure luck in hunting is an
important element of the marine hunting culture. This system is similar in Eskimo
and Chukchi traditions.
The most important festivals were the Festival of the First Boat Launch, the
Festival of the Young Hunter, the Festival of Walrus Heads, the Festival of
Thanking the Spirits, and the Festival of the Winter Solstice. During these festivals
the boys began to get acquainted with their future life as marine hunters.
Sacred Bones and Rocks
The inhabitants of the Bering Strait believe that an animal is not killed. Instead it
comes to visit the hunter who sees it first and permits the hunter to shoot it. The
animal stays a while, gives its meat and skin, and then returns to the sea. The
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